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491
Learning to think Mathematically: Problem solving, metacognition, and sense making in mathematics
- in Grouws (ed), ‘Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning’, NCTM
, 1992
"... Schoenfeld, A. H. (1992). Learning to think mathematically: Problem solving, ..."
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Cited by 374 (6 self)
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Schoenfeld, A. H. (1992). Learning to think mathematically: Problem solving,
The automated will: Nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 2001
"... It is proposed that goals can be activated outside of awareness and then operate nonconsciously to guide self-regulation effectively (J. A. Bargh, 1990). Five experiments are reported in which the goal either to perform well or to cooperate was activated, without the awareness of participants, throu ..."
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Cited by 307 (20 self)
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It is proposed that goals can be activated outside of awareness and then operate nonconsciously to guide self-regulation effectively (J. A. Bargh, 1990). Five experiments are reported in which the goal either to perform well or to cooperate was activated, without the awareness of participants, through a priming manipulation. In Experiment 1 priming of the goal to perform well caused participants to perform comparatively better on an intellectual task. In Experiment 2 priming of the goal to cooperate caused participants to replenish a commonly held resource more readily. Experiment 3 used a dissociation paradigm to rule out perceptual-construal alternative explanations. Experiments 4 and 5 demonstrated that action guided by nonconsciously activated goals manifests two classic content-free features of the pursuit of consciously held goals. Nonconsciously activated goals effectively guide action, enabling adaptation to ongoing situational demands. We must give up the insane illusion that a conscious self, however virtuous and however intelligent, can do its work singlehanded and without assistance. —Aldous Huxley, The Education of an Amphibian Today, most theories of goal pursuit emphasize conscious choice and guidance of behavior on a moment-to-moment basis
Quantifying Qualitative Analyses of Verbal Data: A Practical Guide
- JOURNAL OF THE LEARNING SCIENCES
, 1997
"... This article provides one example of a method of analyzing qualitative data in an objective and quantifiable way. Although the application of the method is illustrated in the context of verbal data such as explanations, interviews, problem-solving protocols, and retrospective reports, in principle ..."
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Cited by 257 (5 self)
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This article provides one example of a method of analyzing qualitative data in an objective and quantifiable way. Although the application of the method is illustrated in the context of verbal data such as explanations, interviews, problem-solving protocols, and retrospective reports, in principle, the mechanics of the method can be adapted for coding other types of qualitative data such as gestures and videotapes. The mechanics of the method we outlined in 8 concrete step. Although verbal analyses can be used for many purposes, the main goal of the analyses discussed here is to formulate an understanding of the representation of the knowledge used in cognitive performances and how that representation changes with learning This can be contrasted with another method or analyzing verbal protocols, the goal of which is to validate the cognitive processes of human performance, often as embodied in a computational model
Measuring the Degree of Internationalization of a Firm
- Journal of International Business Studies
, 1994
"... Abstract. In spite of both positivistic and instrumental research, the reliability of measuring the degree of internationalization of a firm remains speculative. We collected data on nine attributes of seventy-four American manufacturing MNCs. Alpha, factor, and frequency analyses revealed a linear ..."
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Cited by 178 (1 self)
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Abstract. In spite of both positivistic and instrumental research, the reliability of measuring the degree of internationalization of a firm remains speculative. We collected data on nine attributes of seventy-four American manufacturing MNCs. Alpha, factor, and frequency analyses revealed a linear combination of five variables with a reliability coefficient of.79 as a measure of the degree of internationalization of a firm. We discuss the statistical and conceptual properties of the scale and their implications for content and construct validity. The validation of theories of international business has not matched the robustness of their development. Confirmation has been hindered by the lack of reliable measures, the ensuing inability to disentangle the distorting influences of measurement error, and ultimately, the impossibility of establishing content and construct validity. The absence of a coherent approach to establish the validity of measurements results in empirical investigations that are
Mathematical problem solving by analogy
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition
, 1991
"... We report the results of 2 experiments and a verbal protocol study examining the component processes of solving mathematical word problems by analogy. College students first studied a problem and its solution, which provided a potential source for analogical transfer. Then they attempted to solve se ..."
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Cited by 122 (11 self)
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We report the results of 2 experiments and a verbal protocol study examining the component processes of solving mathematical word problems by analogy. College students first studied a problem and its solution, which provided a potential source for analogical transfer. Then they attempted to solve several analogous problems. For some problems, subjects received one of a variety of hints designed to reduce or eliminate the difficulty of some of the major processes hypothesized to be involved in analogical transfer. Our studies yielded 4 major findings. First, the process of mapping xhc features of the source and target problems and the process of adapting the source solution procedure for use in solving the target problem were clearly distinguished: (a) Successful mapping was found to be insufficient for successful transfer and (b) adaptation was found to be a major source of transfer difficulty. Second, we obtained direct evidence that schema induction is a natural consequence of analogical transfer. The schema was found to co-exist with the problems from which it was induced, and both the schema and the individual problems facilitated later transfer. Third, for our multiple-solution problems, the relation between analog-ical transfer and solution accuracy was mediated by the degree of time pressure exerted for the test problems. Finally, mathematical expertise was a significant predictor of analogical transfer,
Macrorules for summarizing texts: The development of expertise
- Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior
, 1983
"... I T-f ·i ') r ..."
Enhancing and Measuring Consumers’ Motivation, Opportunity, and Ability to Process Brand Information from Ads
- Journal of Marketing
, 1991
"... JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JS ..."
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Cited by 87 (4 self)
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JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. American Marketing Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
Beyond the purely cognitive: Belief systems, social cognitions, and metacognitions as driving forces in intellectual performance
- Cognitive Science
, 1983
"... This study explores the way that belief systems, interactions with social or ex-perimental environments, and skills at the “control ” level in decision-making shape people’s behavior as they solve problems. It is argued that problem-salvers ’ beliefs (not necessarily consciously held) about what is ..."
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Cited by 66 (0 self)
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This study explores the way that belief systems, interactions with social or ex-perimental environments, and skills at the “control ” level in decision-making shape people’s behavior as they solve problems. It is argued that problem-salvers ’ beliefs (not necessarily consciously held) about what is useful in mathematics may determine the set of “cognitive resources ” at their disposol as they do mathematics. Such beliefs may, for example, render inaccessible to them lorge bodies of information that are stored in long-term memory and that are easily retrieved in other circumstances. In other cases, individuals’ reactions to an experimental setting (fear of failure. or the desire to “look mathematical ” while being videotaped) may induce behavior that is almost pothalogical-and ot the same time, so consistent that it can be modeled. In generol, such “environmental ” factors establish the context within which in-dividuals access and utilize the information potentiolly ot their disposal. Protocols illustrating these paints are presented and discussed. A model based on an axiomatizotion of students ’ beliefs about plane geometry is out-lined, and is shown to correspond closely to their problem-solving perfar-monce. A fromework is offered for analyzing problem-solving performance ot three qualitatively different levels: access to cognitive resources stored in LTM. executive or control decision-making, and belief systems. This discussion is one of two whose purpose is to delineate a series of psy-chological and methodological issues related to the use of verbal methods (clinical interviews and protocol analyses) for research into human prob-lem-solving processes. Both works are based on the same foundation, the
Accountability: A Social Magnifier of the Dilution Effect
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 1989
"... This research demonstrated that accountability can not only reduce judgmental bias, but also exac-erbate it—in this case, the dilution effect. Ss made predictions from either diagnostic information alone or diagnostic information plus mixtures of additional data (nondiagnostic information, addi-tion ..."
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Cited by 64 (7 self)
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This research demonstrated that accountability can not only reduce judgmental bias, but also exac-erbate it—in this case, the dilution effect. Ss made predictions from either diagnostic information alone or diagnostic information plus mixtures of additional data (nondiagnostic information, addi-tional diagnostic data pointing to either the same conclusion or the opposite conclusion). Relative to unaccountable Ss, accountable Ss (a) diluted their predictions in response to nondiagnostic infor-mation and (b) were more responsive to additional diagnostic information. The accountability ma-nipulation motivated subjects to use a wide range of information in making judgments, but did not make them more discriminating judges of the usefulness of that information. Cognitive social psychologists have painted numerous por-traits of the person as information processor. Early work em-phasized the rigorous rationality with which people analyzed and drew inferences from evidence: the correspondent infer-ence model, the causal schemata model, the covariation model, and the Bayesian model. Later work emphasized people's judg-mental shortcomings. People were depicted as cognitive misers whose preference for simple, easy-to-execute heuristics ren-dered them vulnerable to a variety of errors and biases (Abelson
The bankruptcy of everyday memory
- American Psychologist
, 1989
"... ABSTRACT: A new approach to the study of memory has emerged recently, characterized by a preoccupation with natural settings and with the immediate applicability of research findings. In contrast, the laboratory study of memory relies on experimental techniques for theory test-ing and is concerned w ..."
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Cited by 54 (1 self)
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ABSTRACT: A new approach to the study of memory has emerged recently, characterized by a preoccupation with natural settings and with the immediate applicability of research findings. In contrast, the laboratory study of memory relies on experimental techniques for theory test-ing and is concerned with the discovery of generalizable principles. Although both approaches hare the goal of generalizability, they differ sharply in the evaluation of how that goal is best accomplished. In this article, we criticize the everyday memory approach, arguing that ecologically valid methods do not ensure generalizibility of findings. We discuss tudies high in ecological validity of method but low in generalizibility, and others low in ecological validity of method but high in generalizibility. We solidly endorse the latter approach, believing that an
