The Haughton-Mars expedition is a multidisciplinary project exploring an impact crater in an extreme environment to determine how people might live and work on Mars. This expedition to the Canadian High Arctic seeks to understand and field test Mars facilities, crew roles, operations, and computer tools. The author combines an ethnographic approach to establish a baseline understanding of how scientists prefer to live and work when relatively unencumbered, with a participatory design approach of experimenting with procedures and tools in the context of use. This article focuses on field methods for systematically recording and analyzing the expedition’s activities. Systematic photography and time-lapse video are combined with concept mapping to organize and present information. This hybrid approach is generally applicable to the study of modern field expeditions having a dozen or more multidisciplinary participants, spread over a large terrain during multiple field seasons. During several field seasons, I have conducted research about the practices of scientists and engineers in Haughton Crater, with the objective of determining

analog sites for understanding planetary features and for training astronauts to be scientists. More recently, computer scientists and human factors specialists have followed geologists and biologists into the field, learning how science is actually done on expeditions in extreme environments. Research stations have been constructed by the Mars Society in the Arctic and American southwest, providing facilities for hundreds of researchers to investigate how small crews might live and work on Mars. Combining these interests—science, operations, and technology—in Mars analog field expeditions provides tremendous synergy and authenticity to speculations about Mars missions. By relating historical analyses of Apollo and field science, engineers are creating experimental prototypes that provide significant new capabilities, such as a computer system that automates some of the functions of Apollo’s CapCom. Thus, analog studies have created a community of practice—a new collaboration between scientists and engineers—so that technology begins with real human needs and works incrementally towards the challenges of the human exploration of Mars.

During the past two field seasons, July 1998 and 1999, we have conducted research about the field practices of scientists and engineers at Haughton Crater on Devon Island in the Canadian Arctic, with the objective of determining how people will live and work on Mars. This broad investigation of field life and work practice, part of the Haughton-Mars Project (HMP) lead by Pascal Lee, spans social and cognitive anthropology, psychology, and computer science. Our approach involves systematic observation and description of activities, places, and concepts, constituting an ethnography of field science at Haughton. Our focus is on human behaviors---what people do, where, when, with whom, and why. By locating behavior in time and place---in contrast with a purely functional or "task oriented" description of work---we find patterns constituting the choreography of interaction between people, their habitat, and their tools. As such, we view the exploration

Utah, isolated from other people, while exploring the area and sharing daily chores. Email provided our only means of contact; all mission-related messages were mediated by a remote mission support team. This protocol enabled a systematic and controlled study of crew activities, scheduling, and use of space. The study was primarily a methodological experiment in participant observation and work practice analysis, gathering quantitative data as part of an ethnographic study. The work practice analysis focused on two questions: Where did the time go—why did the crew feel rushed and unable to complete their work? How can we measure productivity, to compare habitat designs, schedules, roles, and tools? Analysis suggests that a simple scheduling change—having lunch and dinner earlier, plus eliminating afternoon meetings—increased the available productive time by 41%. Furthermore, observation of work practices suggested how to eliminate direct use of GPS devices by the crew, illustrating how an ethnographic study can help produce dramatically new operations concepts.

Anecdotal evidence of the individual and interpersonal problems that occurred during the Shuttle-Mir Space Program (SMSP) and other long-duration Russian/Soviet missions, and studies of personnel in other isolated and confined extreme (ICE) environments suggest that psychosocial elements of behavior and performance are likely to have a significant impact on the outcome of long-duration missions in space. This impact may range from individual decrements in performance, health and well being, to catastrophic mission failure. This paper reviews our current understanding of the psychosocial issues related to long duration space missions according to three different domains of behavior: the individual domain, the interpersonal domain and the organizational domain. Individual issues include: personality characteristics that predict successful

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this paper. I also thank Brigitte Jordan (Xerox-Parc) and other anthropologists who have provided helpful advice for pursuing this study. For reprints and related information, please see http://home.att.net/~WJ lancey.

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