and Knowledge Transfer, the special editor and two anonymous referees. The author would also like to acknowledge Himanshu Sheth’s help with statistical analysis. Financial support was graciously provided by the Reginald Jones Center and by the Hunstman Center at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. Errors and omissions are solely the author’s responsibility. 1 THE PROCESS OF KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER: A DIACHRONIC ANALYSIS OF STICKINESS Even though intra-firm transfers of knowledge are often laborious, time consuming and fraught with difficulty, extant conceptions treat them essentially as a costless and instantaneous exploit. When at all acknowledged, difficulty is an anomaly in the way transfers are modeled rather than a characteristic feature of the transfer itself. One first step towards incorporating difficulty in the analysis of knowledge transfer is to recognize that a transfer is not an act, as typically modeled, but a process. This paper offers a process model of knowledge transfer. The model identifies stages of transfer and factors that are expected to correlate with difficulty at different stages of the transfer. The general expectation is that factors that affect the opportunity

abstract Acquisition of capabilities is both imperative and difficult in emerging economies. This study adopts a duel network perspective to examine how the source networks and recipient networks in which international joint venture (IJV) partners operate influence inter-organizational transfer and diffusion of capabilities. We study multiple cases in the Chinese automotive industry to investigate how various factors of MNE source networks and the local recipient networks (business groups in China or qiye jituan) affect knowledge transfer from the MNE source networks into IJVs and knowledge diffusion from IJVs to their local recipient networks. The study suggests ways that the dual networks influence both types of knowledge transfer. We found both positive and negative effects of recipient and source networks on knowledge inflow to the IJVs and knowledge outflow from IJVs. The dual networks perspective is particularly relevant for emerging economies where the asymmetry between the knowledge, power and motivations of the recipient and source networks may significantly affect the knowledge transfer outcome.

Issue Paper No.23ii Dominique Foray — Technology Transfer in the TRIPS Age: The Need for New Types of Partnerships between the Least Developed and Most Advanced Economies Published by International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD)

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Collective knowledge, consisting of tacit group-embedded knowledge, is a key element of organizational capabilities. This study undertakes a multiple-case study of the transfer of collective knowledge, guided by a set of tentative constructs and propositions derived from organizational learning theory. By focusing on the group-embeddedness dimension of collective knowledge, we direct our attention to the source and recipient communities. We identify two sets of strategic choices concerning the transfer of collective knowledge: collective vs. fragmented teaching, and collective vs. fragmented learning. The empirical context of this study is international R&D capability transfer in the Chinese auto industry. From the case evidence, we find the expected benefits of collective teaching and collective learning, and also discover additional benefits of these two strategies, including the creation of a bridge network communication infrastructure. The study disclosed other conditions underlying the choice of strategies of transferring collective knowledge, including transfer effort and the level of groupembeddedness of the knowledge to be taught or re-embedded. The paper provides a group-level

Abstract-The research empirically explores how knowledge transfer is managed within firms by using modern information technologies (ITs) and the problems which are encountered. The results indicate that the utilization of ITs has allowed companies to store, share and distribute knowledge; facilitated worldwide collaboration; and facilitated rapid international technology transfer. I.

Programme and the Wharton Financial Institutions Center is gratefully acknowledged. The usual disclaimers apply. HOW DO MARKETS EMERGE?

Marketing and Entrepreneurship in Nice, France. I am grateful to the editors and anonymous reviewers