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Reinforcement Learning I: Introduction
, 1998
"... In which we try to give a basic intuitive sense of what reinforcement learning is and how it differs and relates to other fields, e.g., supervised learning and neural networks, genetic algorithms and artificial life, control theory. Intuitively, RL is trial and error (variation and selection, search ..."
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Cited by 5500 (120 self)
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In which we try to give a basic intuitive sense of what reinforcement learning is and how it differs and relates to other fields, e.g., supervised learning and neural networks, genetic algorithms and artificial life, control theory. Intuitively, RL is trial and error (variation and selection, search) plus learning (association, memory). We argue that RL is the only field that seriously addresses the special features of the problem of learning from interaction to achieve long-term goals.
Induction of Decision Trees
- MACH. LEARN
, 1986
"... The technology for building knowledge-based systems by inductive inference from examples has been demonstrated successfully in several practical applications. This paper summarizes an approach to synthesizing decision trees that has been used in a variety of systems, and it describes one such syste ..."
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Cited by 4303 (4 self)
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The technology for building knowledge-based systems by inductive inference from examples has been demonstrated successfully in several practical applications. This paper summarizes an approach to synthesizing decision trees that has been used in a variety of systems, and it describes one such system, ID3, in detail. Results from recent studies show ways in which the methodology can be modified to deal with information that is noisy and/or incomplete. A reported shortcoming of the basic algorithm is discussed and two means of overcoming it are compared. The paper concludes with illustrations of current research directions.
Reinforcement learning: a survey
- Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research
, 1996
"... This paper surveys the field of reinforcement learning from a computer-science perspective. It is written to be accessible to researchers familiar with machine learning. Both the historical basis of the field and a broad selection of current work are summarized. Reinforcement learning is the problem ..."
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Cited by 1690 (26 self)
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This paper surveys the field of reinforcement learning from a computer-science perspective. It is written to be accessible to researchers familiar with machine learning. Both the historical basis of the field and a broad selection of current work are summarized. Reinforcement learning is the problem faced by an agent that learns behavior through trial-and-error interactions with a dynamic environment. The work described here has a resemblance to work in psychology, but differs considerably in the details and in the use of the word "reinforcement." The paper discusses central issues of reinforcement learning, including trading off exploration and exploitation, establishing the foundations of the field via Markov decision theory, learning from delayed reinforcement, constructing empirical models to accelerate learning, making use of generalization and hierarchy, and coping with hidden state. It concludes with a survey of some implemented systems and an assessment of the practical utility of current methods for reinforcement learning.
Learning to predict by the methods of temporal differences
- MACHINE LEARNING
, 1988
"... This article introduces a class of incremental learning procedures specialized for prediction – that is, for using past experience with an incompletely known system to predict its future behavior. Whereas conventional prediction-learning methods assign credit by means of the difference between predi ..."
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Cited by 1501 (56 self)
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This article introduces a class of incremental learning procedures specialized for prediction – that is, for using past experience with an incompletely known system to predict its future behavior. Whereas conventional prediction-learning methods assign credit by means of the difference between predicted and actual outcomes, the new methods assign credit by means of the difference between temporally successive predictions. Although such temporal-difference methods have been used in Samuel's checker player, Holland's bucket brigade, and the author's Adaptive Heuristic Critic, they have remained poorly understood. Here we prove their convergence and optimality for special cases and relate them to supervised-learning methods. For most real-world prediction problems, temporal-difference methods require less memory and less peak computation than conventional methods and they produce more accurate predictions. We argue that most problems to which supervised learning is currently applied are really prediction problems of the sort to which temporal-difference methods can be applied to advantage.
Genetic Programming
, 1997
"... Introduction Genetic programming is a domain-independent problem-solving approach in which computer programs are evolved to solve, or approximately solve, problems. Genetic programming is based on the Darwinian principle of reproduction and survival of the fittest and analogs of naturally occurring ..."
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Cited by 1051 (12 self)
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Introduction Genetic programming is a domain-independent problem-solving approach in which computer programs are evolved to solve, or approximately solve, problems. Genetic programming is based on the Darwinian principle of reproduction and survival of the fittest and analogs of naturally occurring genetic operations such as crossover (sexual recombination) and mutation. John Holland's pioneering Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems (1975) described how an analog of the evolutionary process can be applied to solving mathematical problems and engineering optimization problems using what is now called the genetic algorithm (GA). The genetic algorithm attempts to find a good (or best) solution to the problem by genetically breeding a population of individuals over a series of generations. In the genetic algorithm, each individual in the population represents a candidate solut
Markov games as a framework for multi-agent reinforcement learning
- IN PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MACHINE LEARNING
, 1994
"... In the Markov decision process (MDP) formalization of reinforcement learning, a single adaptive agent interacts with an environment defined by a probabilistic transition function. In this solipsistic view, secondary agents can only be part of the environment and are therefore fixed in their behavior ..."
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Cited by 607 (13 self)
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In the Markov decision process (MDP) formalization of reinforcement learning, a single adaptive agent interacts with an environment defined by a probabilistic transition function. In this solipsistic view, secondary agents can only be part of the environment and are therefore fixed in their behavior. The framework of Markov games allows us to widen this view to include multiple adaptive agents with interacting or competing goals. This paper considers a step in this direction in which exactly two agents with diametrically opposed goals share an environment. It describes a Q-learning-like algorithm for finding optimal policies and demonstrates its application to a simple two-player game in which the optimal policy is probabilistic.
Practical Issues in Temporal Difference Learning
- Machine Learning
, 1992
"... This paper examines whether temporal difference methods for training connectionist networks, such as Suttons's TD(lambda) algorithm can be successfully applied to complex real-world problems. A number of important practical issues are identified and discussed from a general theoretical perspect ..."
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Cited by 418 (2 self)
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This paper examines whether temporal difference methods for training connectionist networks, such as Suttons's TD(lambda) algorithm can be successfully applied to complex real-world problems. A number of important practical issues are identified and discussed from a general theoretical perspective. These practical issues are then examined in the context of a case study in which TD(lambda) is applied to learning the game of backgammon from the outcome of self-play. This is apparently the first application of this algorithm to a complex nontrivial task. It is found that, with zero knowledge built in, the network is able to learn from scratch to play the entire game at a fairly strong intermediate level of performance which is clearly better than conventional commercial programs and which in fact surpasses comparable networks trained on a massive human expert data set. This indicates that TD learning may work better in practice than one would expect based on current theory, and it suggests that further analysis of TD methods, as well as applications in other complex domains may be worth investigating.
Elephants don't play chess
- Robotics and Autonomous Systems
, 1990
"... Engineering and Computer Science at M.I.T. and a member of the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory where he leads the mobile robot group. He has authored two books, numerous scientific papers, and is the editor of the International Journal of Computer Vision. There is an alternative route to Artifici ..."
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Cited by 399 (4 self)
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Engineering and Computer Science at M.I.T. and a member of the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory where he leads the mobile robot group. He has authored two books, numerous scientific papers, and is the editor of the International Journal of Computer Vision. There is an alternative route to Artificial Intelligence that diverges from the directions pursued under that banner for the last thirty some years. The traditional approach has emphasized the abstract manipulation of symbols, whose grounding, in physical reality has. rarely been achieved. We explore a research methodology which emphasizes ongoing physical interaction with the environment as the primary source of constraint on the design of intelligent systems. We show how this methodology has recently had significant successes on a par with the most successful classical efforts. We outline plausible future work along these lines which can lead to vastly more ambitious systems. 1.
Prioritized sweeping: Reinforcement learning with less data and less time
- Machine Learning
, 1993
"... We present a new algorithm, Prioritized Sweeping, for e cient prediction and control of stochas-tic Markov systems. Incremental learning methods such asTemporal Di erencing and Q-learning have fast real time performance. Classical methods are slower, but more accurate, because they make full use of ..."
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Cited by 379 (5 self)
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We present a new algorithm, Prioritized Sweeping, for e cient prediction and control of stochas-tic Markov systems. Incremental learning methods such asTemporal Di erencing and Q-learning have fast real time performance. Classical methods are slower, but more accurate, because they make full use of the observations. Prioritized Sweeping aims for the best of both worlds. It uses all previous experiences both to prioritize important dynamic programming sweeps and to guide the exploration of state-space. We compare Prioritized Sweeping with other reinforcement learning schemes for a number of di erent stochastic optimal control prob-lems. It successfully solves large state-space real time problems with which other methods have di culty. 1 1
