Abstract—The simultaneous localization and map building (SLAM) problem asks if it is possible for an autonomous vehicle to start in an unknown location in an unknown environment and then to incrementally build a map of this environment while simultaneously using this map to compute absolute vehicle location. Starting from the estimation-theoretic foundations of this problem developed in [1]–[3], this paper proves that a solution to the SLAM problem is indeed possible. The underlying structure of the SLAM problem is first elucidated. A proof that the estimated map converges monotonically to a relative map with zero uncertainty is then developed. It is then shown that the absolute accuracy of the map and the vehicle location reach a lower bound defined only by the initial vehicle uncertainty. Together, these results show that it is possible for an autonomous vehicle to start in an unknown location in an unknown environment and, using relative observations only, incrementally build a perfect map of the world and to compute simultaneously a bounded estimate of vehicle location. This paper also describes a substantial implementation of the SLAM algorithm on a vehicle operating in an outdoor environment using millimeter-wave (MMW) radar to provide relative map observations. This implementation is used to demonstrate how some key issues such as map management and data association can be handled in a practical environment. The results obtained are cross-compared with absolute locations of the map landmarks obtained by surveying. In conclusion, this paper discusses a number of key issues raised by the solution to the SLAM problem including suboptimal map-building algorithms and map management. Index Terms—Autonomous navigation, millimeter wave radar, simultaneous localization and map building. I.

We present a 3-D shape-based object recognition system for simultaneous recognition of multiple objects in scenes containing clutter and occlusion. Recognition is based on matching surfaces by matching points using the spin-image representation. The spin-image is a data level shape descriptor that is used to match surfaces represented as surface meshes. We present a compression scheme for spin-images that results in efficient multiple object recognition which we verify with results showing the simultaneous recognition of multiple objects from a library of 20 models. Furthermore, we demonstrate the robust performance of recognition in the presence of clutter and occlusion through analysis of recognition trials on 100 scenes. This research was performed at Carnegie Mellon University and was supported by the US Department Surface matching is a technique from 3-D computer vision that has many applications in the area of robotics and automation. Through surface matching, an object can be recognized in a scene by comparing a sensed surface to an object surface stored in memory. When the object surface is matched to the scene surface, an association is made between something known (the object) and

One of the challenges in 3D shape matching arises from the fact that in many applications, models should be considered to be the same if they differ by a rotation. Consequently, when comparing two models, a similarity metric implicitly provides the measure of similarity at the optimal alignment. Explicitly solving for the optimal alignment is usually impractical. So, two general methods have been proposed for addressing this issue: (1) Every model is represented using rotation invariant descriptors. (2) Every model is described by a rotation dependent descriptor that is aligned into a canonical coordinate system defined by the model. In this paper, we discuss the limitations of canonical alignment and present a new mathematical tool, based on spherical harmonics, for obtaining rotation invariant representations. We describe the properties of this tool and show how it can be applied to a number of existing, orientation dependent, descriptors to improve their matching performance. The advantage of this is twofold: First, it improves the matching performance of many descriptors. Second, it reduces the dimensionality of the descriptor, providing a more compact representation, which in turn makes comparing two models more efficient.

In this paper we present a multiview registration method for aligning range data. We first align scans pairwise with each other and use the pairwise alignments as constraints that the multiview step enforces while evenly diffusing the pairwise registration errors. This approach is especially suitable for registering large data sets, since using constraints from pairwise alignments does not require loading the entire data set into memory to perform the alignment. The alignment method is efficient, and it is less likely to get stuck into a local minimum than previous methods, and can be used in conjunction with any pairwise method based on aligning overlapping surface sections.

this article we focus on the study of the gestures of a person, but the same methodology could be applied to the study of robots motions or of other kinds of articulated objects. Some examples of applications are listed in the table 1.

This paper presents a method that uses the level sets of volumes to reconstruct the shapes of 3D objects from range data. The strategy is to formulate 3D reconstruction as a statistical problem: find that surface which is mostly likely, given the data and some prior knowledge about the application domain. The resulting optimization problem is solved by an incremental process of deformation. We represent a deformable surface as the level set of a discretely sampled scalar function of 3 dimensions, i.e. a volume. Such level-set models have been shown to mimic conventional deformable surface models by encoding surface movements as changes in the greyscale values of the volume. The result is a voxel-based modeling technology that offers several advantages over conventional parametric models, including flexible topology, no need for reparameterization, concise descriptions of differential structure, and a natural scale space for hierarchical representations. This paper builds on previous work in both 3D reconstruction and level-set modeling. It presents a fundamental result in surface estimation from range data: an analytical characterization of the surface that maximizes the posterior probability. It also presents a novel computational technique for level-set modeling, called the sparse-field algorithm, which combines the advantages of a level-set approach with the computational efficiency and accuracy of a parametric representation. The sparse-field algorithm is more efficient than other approaches, and because it assigns the level set to a specific set of grid points, it positions the level-set model more accurately than the grid itself. These properties, computational efficiency and sub-cell accuracy, are essential when trying to reconstruct the shapes of 3D objects. Results are shown for the reconstruction objects from sets of noisy and overlapping range maps.

Advances in computer speed, memory capacity, and hardware graphics acceleration have made the interactive manipulation and visualization of complex, detailed (and therefore large) three-dimensional models feasible. These models are either painstakingly designed through an elaborate CAD process or reverse engineered from sculpted prototypes using modern scanning technologies and integration methods. The availability of detailed data describing the shape of an object offers the computer vision practitioner new ways to recognize and localize free-form objects. This survey reviews recent literature on both the 3D model building process and techniques used to match and identify free-form objects from imagery. c ○ 2001 Academic Press 1.

The simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) with detection and tracking of moving objects (DATMO) problem is not only to solve the SLAM problem in dynamic environments but also to detect and track these dynamic objects. In this paper, we derive the Bayesian formula of the SLAM with DATMO problem, which provides a solid basis for understanding and solving this problem. In addition, we provide a practical algorithm for performing DATMO from a moving platform equipped with range sensors. The probabilistic approach to solve the whole problem has been implemented with the Navlab11 vehicle. More than 100 miles of experiments in crowded urban areas indicated that SLAM with DATMO is indeed feasible.

surface registration, object modeling, scene clutter. Dedicated to Dorothy D. Funnell, a believer in higher education. Surface matching is the process that compares surfaces and decides whether they are similar. In three-dimensional (3-D) computer vision, surface matching plays a prominent role. Surface matching can be used for object recognition; by comparing two surfaces, an association between a known object and sensed data is established. By computing the 3-D transformation that aligns two surfaces, surface matching can also be used for surface registration. Surface matching is difficult because the coordinate system in which to compare two surfaces is undefined. The typical approach to surface matching is to transform the surfaces being compared into representations where comparison of surfaces is straightforward. Surface matching is further complicated by characteristics of sensed data, including clutter, occlusion and sensor noise. This thesis describes a data level representation of surfaces used for surface matching. In our representation, surface shape is described by a dense collection of oriented points, 3-D

In this paper, we propose and analyze several methods to estimate a rigid transformation from a set of 3-D matched points or matched frames, which are important features in geometric algorithms. We also develop tools to predict and verify the accuracy of these estimations. The theoretical contributions are: an intrinsic model of noise for transformations based on composition rather than addition; a unified formalism for the estimation of both the rigid transformation and its covariance matrix for points or frames correspondences, and a statistical validation method to verify the error estimation, which applies even when no "ground truth" is available. We analyze and demonstrate on synthetic data that our scheme is well behaved. The practical contribution of the paper is the validation of our transformation estimation method in the case of 3-D medical images, which shows that an accuracy of the registration far below the size of a voxel can be achieved, and in the case of protein substructure matching, where frame features drastically improve both selectivity and complexity. 1.