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Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being
- American Psychologist
, 2000
"... Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theo~ has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus fores ..."
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Cited by 1636 (40 self)
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Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theo~ has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatedness-which when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains
The “What” and “Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior
, 2000
"... Self-determination theory (SDT) maintains that an understanding of human motiva-tion requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, auton-omy, and relatedness. We discuss the SDT concept of needs as it relates to previous need theories, emphasizing that needs specify the nece ..."
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Cited by 1105 (36 self)
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Self-determination theory (SDT) maintains that an understanding of human motiva-tion requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, auton-omy, and relatedness. We discuss the SDT concept of needs as it relates to previous need theories, emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psycholog-ical growth, integrity, and well-being. This concept of needs leads to the hypotheses that different regulatory processes underlying goal pursuits are differentially associated with effective functioning and well-being and also that different goal contents have different relations to the quality of behavior and mental health, specifically be-cause different regulatory processes and different goal contents are associated with differing degrees of need satisfaction. Social contexts and individual differences that support satisfaction of the basic needs facilitate natural growth processes including intrinsically motivated behavior and integration of extrinsic motivations, whereas those that forestall autonomy, competence, or relatedness are associated with poorer motivation, performance, and well-being. We also discuss the relation of the psycho-logical needs to cultural values, evolutionary processes, and other contemporary motivation theories. Most contemporary theories of motivation assume that people initiate and persist at behaviors to the ex-tent that they believe the behaviors will lead to desired outcomes or goals. Beginning with the work of Lewin (1936) and Tolman (1932), this premise has led moti-vation researchers to explore the psychological value people ascribe to goals (e.g., T. Kasser & Ryan, 1996; Vroom, 1964), people’s expectations about attaining goals (e.g., Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978;
A Meta-Analytic Review of Experiments Examining the Effects of Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation
"... A meta-analysis of 128 studies examined the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. As predicted, engagement-contingent, completion-contingent, and performance-contingent rewards signifi-cantly undermined free-choice intrinsic motivation (d =-0.40,-0.36, and-0.28, respectively), as did ..."
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Cited by 664 (18 self)
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A meta-analysis of 128 studies examined the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. As predicted, engagement-contingent, completion-contingent, and performance-contingent rewards signifi-cantly undermined free-choice intrinsic motivation (d =-0.40,-0.36, and-0.28, respectively), as did all rewards, all tangible rewards, and all expected rewards. Engagement-contingent and completion-contingent rewards also significantly undermined self-reported interest (d =-0.15, and —0.17), as did all tangible rewards and all expected rewards. Positive feedback enhanced both free-choice behavior (d = 0.33) and self-reported interest (d = 0.31). Tangible rewards tended to be more detrimental for children than college students, and verbal rewards tended to be less enhancing for children than college students. The authors review 4 previous meta-analyses of this literature and detail how this study's methods, analyses, and results differed from the previous ones. By 1971, hundreds of studies within the operant tradition (Skin-ner, 1953) had established that extrinsic rewards can control be-havior. When administered closely subsequent to a behavior, re-wards were reliably found to increase the likelihood that the behavior would be emitted again, an effect that persisted as long as
Motivation crowding theory
- Journal of Economic Surveys
, 2001
"... Abstract. The Motivation Crowding Effect suggests that external intervention via monetary incentives or punishments may undermine, and under different identifiable conditions strengthen, intrinsic motivation. As of today, the theoretical possibility of motivation crowding has been the main subject o ..."
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Cited by 203 (8 self)
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Abstract. The Motivation Crowding Effect suggests that external intervention via monetary incentives or punishments may undermine, and under different identifiable conditions strengthen, intrinsic motivation. As of today, the theoretical possibility of motivation crowding has been the main subject of discussion among economists. This study demonstrates that the effect is also of empirical relevance. There exist a large number of studies, offering empirical evidence in support of the existence of crowding-out and crowding-in. The study is based on circumstantial evidence, laboratory studies by both psychologists and economists, as well as field research by econometric studies. The pieces of evidence presented refer to a wide variety of areas of the economy and society and have been collected for many different countries and periods of time. Crowding effects thus are an empirically relevant phenomenon, which can, in specific cases, even dominate the traditional relative price effect.
Pay enough or don't pay at all
- Quarterly Journal of Economics, August
, 2000
"... Economists usually assume that monetary incentives improve performance, and psychologists claim that the opposite may happen. We present and discuss a set of experiments designed to test these contrasting claims. We found that the effect of monetary compensation on performance was not monotonic. In ..."
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Cited by 157 (5 self)
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Economists usually assume that monetary incentives improve performance, and psychologists claim that the opposite may happen. We present and discuss a set of experiments designed to test these contrasting claims. We found that the effect of monetary compensation on performance was not monotonic. In the treatments in which money was offered, a larger amount yielded a higher performance. However, offering money did not always produce an improvement: subjects who were offered monetary incentives performed more poorly than those who were offered no compensation. Several possible interpretations of the results are discussed. I.
Motivation crowding theory: A survey of empirical evidence.
- Journal of Economic Surveys,
, 2001
"... Abstract: The motivation crowding effect suggests that an external intervention via monetary incentives or punishments may undermine (and under different indentifiable conditions strengthen) intrinsic motivation. As of today, the theoretical possibility of crowding effects is widely accepted among ..."
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Cited by 125 (16 self)
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Abstract: The motivation crowding effect suggests that an external intervention via monetary incentives or punishments may undermine (and under different indentifiable conditions strengthen) intrinsic motivation. As of today, the theoretical possibility of crowding effects is widely accepted among economists. Many of them, however, have been critical about its empirical relevance. This survey shows that such scepticism is unwarranted and that there exists indeed compelling empirical evidence for the existence of crowding out and crowding in. It is based on circumstantial insight, laboratory studies by both psychologists and economists as well as field research by econometric studies. The presented pieces of evidence refer to a wide variety of areas of the economy and society and have been collected for many different countries and periods. Crowding effects thus are an empirically relevant phenomenon, which can, in specific cases, even dominate the traditional relative price effect.
Fay D (2001) Personal initiative: An active performance concept for work
- in the 21st century. Research in Organizational Behavior
"... This research was supported as Project AHUS (Aktives Handeln in einer Umbruch-Situation-active actions in a radical change situation) by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, No Fr 638/6-2 to 6) (principal investigator: Prof. Frese). We are grateful to Dan Ilgen and Bob Wood for commenting and c ..."
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Cited by 90 (2 self)
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This research was supported as Project AHUS (Aktives Handeln in einer Umbruch-Situation-active actions in a radical change situation) by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, No Fr 638/6-2 to 6) (principal investigator: Prof. Frese). We are grateful to Dan Ilgen and Bob Wood for commenting and critiquing prior versions of this article and to Elizabeth Morrison for This article reports on the development of a concept of personal initiative (PI). Personal initiative is a work behavior defined as self-starting and proactive that overcomes barriers to achieve a goal. It is argued that future workplaces will require people to show more PI than before, and that current concepts of performance and organizational behavior are more reactive than desirable. The facets of PI are developed along the lines of goals, information collection, plans, and feedback. Personal initiative enables people to deal with job difficulties more actively, for example, with stressors, unemployment, career changes, or becoming an entrepreneur. High PI changes the work situation of employees and relates to success as an entrepreneur. Personal initiative is seen to sharpen and partly modify the concepts of reciprocal determinism, organizational citizenship behavior, innovation, entrepreneurship, work performance, intrinsic motivation, and self-regulation. George Bernhard Shaw (Mrs. Warren’s Profession 1893): “People are always blaming their
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations in the classroom: Age differences and academic correlates
- Journal of Educational Psychology
, 2005
"... Age differences in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and the relationships of each to academic outcomes were examined in an ethnically diverse sample of 797 3rd-grade through 8th-grade children. Using independent measures, the authors found intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to be only moderately c ..."
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Cited by 73 (2 self)
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Age differences in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and the relationships of each to academic outcomes were examined in an ethnically diverse sample of 797 3rd-grade through 8th-grade children. Using independent measures, the authors found intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to be only moderately correlated, suggesting that they may be largely orthogonal dimensions of motivation in school. Consistent with previous research, intrinsic motivation showed a significant linear decrease from 3rd grade through 8th grade and proved positively correlated with children’s grades and standardized test scores at all grade levels. Extrinsic motivation showed few differences across grade levels and proved negatively correlated with academic outcomes. Surprisingly few differences based on children’s sex or ethnicity were found. Causes and consequences of the disturbingly low levels of motivation for older, relative to younger, children are discussed.
The coach-athlete relationship: A motivational model
- Journal of Sports Sciences
, 2003
"... The aim of this paper is to present a motivational model of the coach–athlete relationship that describes how coaches may influence athletes ’ motivation. In line with cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1980, 1985) and the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, ..."
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Cited by 70 (3 self)
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The aim of this paper is to present a motivational model of the coach–athlete relationship that describes how coaches may influence athletes ’ motivation. In line with cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1980, 1985) and the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997, 2000), a motivational sequence is proposed where coaches ’ personal orientation towards coaching, the context within which they operate, and their perceptions of their athletes ’ behaviour and motivation influence coaches ’ behaviours. Also, coaches ’ behaviours in the form of autonomy-supportive behaviours, provision of structure and involvement have a beneficial impact on athletes ’ needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, which, in turn, nurture athletes ’ intrinsic motivation and self-determined types of extrinsic motivation. Here, we first review coaches’ autonomy-supportive behaviours. We then describe the psychological processes through which coaching behaviours have a positive influence on athletes ’ intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation. Finally, we identify social and personality processes that determine coaching behaviours.
Self-regulation and the problem of human autonomy: Does psychology need choice, self-determination, and will
- Journal of Personality
, 2006
"... ABSTRACT The term autonomy literally refers to regulation by the self. Its opposite, heteronomy, refers to controlled regulation, or regulation that occurs without self-endorsement. At a time when philosophers and economists are increasingly detailing the nature of autonomy and recognizing its socia ..."
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Cited by 62 (2 self)
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ABSTRACT The term autonomy literally refers to regulation by the self. Its opposite, heteronomy, refers to controlled regulation, or regulation that occurs without self-endorsement. At a time when philosophers and economists are increasingly detailing the nature of autonomy and recognizing its social and practical significance, many psychologists are questioning the reality and import of autonomy and closely related phenomena such as will, choice, and freedom. Using the framework of selfdetermination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), we review research concerning the benefits of autonomous versus controlled regulation for goal performance, persistence, affective experience, quality of relationships, and well-being across domains and cultures. We also address some of the controversies and terminological issues surrounding the construct of autonomy, including critiques of autonomy by biological reductionists, cultural relativists, and behaviorists. We conclude that there is a universal and cross-developmental value to autonomous regulation when the construct is understood in an exacting way. The concept of autonomy has become increasingly accepted, refined, and applied within the discipline of philosophy (Friedman, 2003). Indeed, Taylor (2005) argued that the nature and value of autonomy are now common topics within philosophy and that these discussions of autonomy are ‘‘underpinned by an increasingly flourishing and
