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...le base with a pan-tilt unit or at the tip of a manipulator, allow for precise localization of a 2D sensor in 3D. In combination with an IMU, this can also be used to create a map with a quadrocopter =-=[7]-=-. Visual SLAM approaches [8], [9], [10], also referred to as “structure and motion estimation” [11], [12] compute the robot’s motion and the map using cameras as sensors. Stereo cameras are commonly u...

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...tating laser scanner with the two rotation axes. The Hokuyo 2D LRF is mounted on a bearing and rotated around the red axis. (b) The 3D laser scanner mounted on our multicopter. 2D laser range finders =-=[7]-=-, [1], [2], [3], [4], [8] are used, which restricts the FoV to the 2D measurement plane of the sensor. A similar setup to ours is described by Scherer and Cover et al. [9], [10]. Their MAV is used to ...

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...t robotics research varies especially in the level of autonomy ranging from basic hovering and position holding [5] over trajectory tracking and waypoint navigation [6] to fully autonomous navigation =-=[7]-=-. Limiting factors for increasing autonomy and complexity of truly autonomous systems (without external sensing and control) are limited onboard sensing and limited onboard processing power. Particula...

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...gation (see for example (Achtelik et al., 2009a; Pears, 2000; Chowdhary et al., 2011a; Chowdhary et al., 2011b; Achtelik et al., 2009b; Grzonka and Burgard, ; Shen and Kumar, ; Bachrach et al., 2011; =-=Grzonka et al., 2012-=-)). However, these sensors typically rely on the emission and reception of a signal to determine range which is sometimes undesirable if the vehicle needs to remain undetected. Vision sensors have a t...

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... the level of autonomy—ranging from basic hovering and position holding (Bouabdallah et al., 2004) over trajectory tracking and waypoint navigation (Puls et al., 2009) to fully autonomous navigation (=-=Grzonka et al., 2012-=-). 2.1 Obstacle Perception Particularly important for fully autonomous operation is the ability to perceive obstacles and to avoid collisions. Obstacle avoidance is often neglected, e.g., by flying in...

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... robotics research varies especially in the level of autonomy—ranging from basic hovering and position holding [3] over trajectory tracking and waypoint navigation [22] to fully autonomous navigation =-=[10]-=-. A summary on autonomy levels is given in [17]. Particularly important for fully autonomous operation is the ability to perceive obstacles and avoid collisions. Obstacle avoidance is often neglected,...

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...pplication of MAVs varies especially in the level of autonomy—ranging from basic hovering and position holding [4] over trajectory tracking and waypoint navigation [27] to fully autonomous navigation =-=[13]-=-. Particularly important for fully autonomous operation is the ability to perceive obstacles and to avoid collisions. Obstacle avoidance is often neglected, e.g., by flying in a sufficient height when...

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...n lightweight MAVs due to their payload limitations and the difficulty of aggregating 3D scans in-flight. Instead, frequently MAVs are equipped with rigidly mounted twodimensional laser range finders =-=[9, 28, 8, 2, 23, 11]-=-, which restricts their FoV to a mostly horizontal plane at the height of the MAV. Some MAVs have been equipped with 3D laser scanners. For instance, Scherer and Cover et al. [20, 5] use a 3D laser sc...

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...ose estimates (RPE) by computing the root mean square error over all relative deviations and taking the mean over all time intervals ∆: RPE (E1:n) := 1 n n∑ ∆=1 ( 1 m m∑ i=1 ‖trans (Ei (∆)) ‖2 )1/2 . =-=(10)-=- This metric averaging over all possible time intervals ∆ leverages both the errors made in relative pose estimates (∆ = 1) and global consistency errors, e.g., between start and end pose (∆ = n). In ...