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Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. (1998)

by A G Greenwald, D E McGhee, J L K Schwartz
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Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm

by Anthony G. Greenwald, T. Andrew Poehlman, Eric Luis Uhlmann, Mahzarin R. Banaji, Anthony G. Greenwald - Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 2003
"... behavior relations Greenwald et al. Predictive validity of the IAT (Draft of 30 Dec 2008) 2 Abstract (131 words) This review of 122 research reports (184 independent samples, 14,900 subjects), found average r=.274 for prediction of behavioral, judgment, and physiological measures by Implic ..."
Abstract - Cited by 632 (94 self) - Add to MetaCart
behavior relations Greenwald et al. Predictive validity of the IAT (Draft of 30 Dec 2008) 2 Abstract (131 words) This review of 122 research reports (184 independent samples, 14,900 subjects), found average r=.274 for prediction of behavioral, judgment, and physiological measures by Implicit Association Test (IAT) measures. Parallel explicit (i.e., self-report) measures, available in 156 of these samples (13,068 subjects), also predicted effectively (average r=.361), but with much greater variability of effect size. Predictive validity of self-report was impaired for socially sensitive topics, for which impression management may distort self-report responses. For 32 samples with criterion measures involving Black–White interracial behavior, predictive validity of IAT measures significantly exceeded that of self-report measures. Both IAT and self-report measures displayed incremental validity, with each measure predicting criterion variance beyond that predicted by the other. The more highly IAT and self-report measures were intercorrelated, the greater was the predictive validity of each.
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...ask of determining whether measures of this implicit aspect of attitudes effectively predict behavior has been pursued most extensively with one particular method, the Implicit Association Test (IAT; =-=Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998-=-; see recent overview by Nosek, Greenwald, & Banaji, 2007). This article summarizes research that has been conducted to evaluate the predictive validity of IAT measures. Although the present review is...

The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being

by Kirk Warren Brown, Richard M. Ryan - Journal of Personality & Social Psychology , 2003
"... Mindfulness is an attribute of consciousness long believed to promote well-being. This research provides a theoretical and empirical examination of the role of mindfulness in psychological well-being. The development and psychometric properties of the dispositional Mindful Attention Awareness Scale ..."
Abstract - Cited by 480 (21 self) - Add to MetaCart
Mindfulness is an attribute of consciousness long believed to promote well-being. This research provides a theoretical and empirical examination of the role of mindfulness in psychological well-being. The development and psychometric properties of the dispositional Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) are described. Correlational, quasi-experimental, and laboratory studies then show that the MAAS measures a unique quality of consciousness that is related to a variety of well-being constructs, that differentiates mindfulness practitioners from others, and that is associated with enhanced selfawareness. An experience-sampling study shows that both dispositional and state mindfulness predict self-regulated behavior and positive emotional states. Finally, a clinical intervention study with cancer patients demonstrates that increases in mindfulness over time relate to declines in mood disturbance and stress. Many philosophical, spiritual, and psychological traditions emphasize the importance of the quality of consciousness for the maintenance and enhancement of well-being (Wilber, 2000). Despite this, it is easy to overlook the importance of consciousness in human well-being because almost everyone exercises its primary
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...cally assessed using self-report instruments, evidence indicates that it can also operate outside of awareness (Shevrin, 2000; Westen, 1998). In the present study, the Implicit Association Test (IAT; =-=Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998-=-) was used to assess automatic associations between self and affective states. 3 The validity and reliability of the IAT as a measure of implicit processes has been demonstrated in a number of studies...

Reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior

by Fritz Strack - Personality and Social Psychology Review , 2004
"... This article describes a 2-systems model that explains social behavior as a joint function of reflective and impulsive processes. In particular, it is assumed that social behavior is controlled by 2 interacting systems that follow different operating principles. The reflective system generates behav ..."
Abstract - Cited by 365 (5 self) - Add to MetaCart
This article describes a 2-systems model that explains social behavior as a joint function of reflective and impulsive processes. In particular, it is assumed that social behavior is controlled by 2 interacting systems that follow different operating principles. The reflective system generates behavioral decisions that are based on knowledge about facts and values, whereas the impulsive system elicits behavior through associative links and motivational orientations. The proposed model describes how the 2 systems interact at various stages of processing, and how their outputs may determine behavior in a synergistic or antagonistic fashion. It extends previous models by integrating motivational components that allow more precise predictions of behavior. The implications of this reflective–impulsive model are applied to various phenomena from social psychology and beyond. Extending previous dual-process accounts, this model is not limited to specific domains of mental functioning and attempts to integrate cognitive, motivational, and behavioral mechanisms. In the history of attempts to discover the causes of human behavior, the most widespread explanations are based on the assumption that human beings do what they believe is good for them. Thus, they are construed as “rational animals ” capable of recognizing the value or utility of their actions. At the same time, however, it is obvious that human beings do not always act this way; that is, under certain circumstances people behave in ways that do not reflect their values. To account for this phenomenon, to which the Greek philosophers gave the name akrasia (e.g., Mele, 1992), several strategies have been pursued. The first strategy assumes ignorance or lack of knowledge on the part of the actor. Socrates, for example, claimed that if people only knew what is good for them, they would act accordingly. A similar position is held by modern economists who imply that irrational decisions This article received the 2003 Theoretical Innovation Price of the
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...reness (e.g., Banaji, 2001; Blair, 2001). To study such implicit phenomena, new methods of research have been developed (e.g., Maass, Castelli, & Arcuri, 2000), such as the implicit association test (=-=Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998-=-), evaluative priming (Fazio, Sanbonmatsu, Powell, & Kardes, 1986), or affective variants of the Stroop and Simon task (e.g., De Houwer, Crombez, & Baeyens, 2001). These measures have in common that t...

Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice toward Female Leaders

by Alice H. Eagly, Steven J. Karau - Psychological Review , 2002
"... A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that f ..."
Abstract - Cited by 294 (4 self) - Add to MetaCart
A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles. Leadership has been predominantly a male prerogative in cor-porate, political, military, and other sectors of society. Although women have gained increased access to supervisory and middle management positions, they remain quite rare as elite leaders and top executives. To explain this phenomenon, public and scientific discussion has centered on the idea of a “glass ceiling”—a barrier of prejudice and discrimination that excludes women from higher level leadership positions (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995; Morrison, White, & Van Velsor, 1987). To further this discussion, we advance a theory of prejudice toward female lead-ers and test the theory in relation to available empirical research. This integrative theory builds on social psychologists ’ tradition of studying prejudice and stereotyping and industrial–organizational psychologists ’ tradition of studying perceptions of managerial roles. The popularity of the glass ceiling concept may stem from the rarity of women in major leadership posts, despite the presence of equality or near equality of the sexes on many other indicators. A number of statistics thus suggest equality: In the United States, women make up 46 % of all workers (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001b) and 45 % of those in executive, administrative, and managerial occupations (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001a); women possess 51 % of bachelor’s degrees and 45 % of all
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...reveal prejudice. Studies oriented to circumventing this problem have applied implicit measurement techniques to examine attitudes toward female and male leaders. Using the Implicit Association Test (=-=Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998-=-), Carpenter (2001) assessed the strength of student participants’ associations between the terms male leaders and female leaders (and in one experiment the names of actual male and female leaders) an...

Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept

by Anthony G. Greenwald, Shelly D. Farnham, D. E. Mcghee - Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 2000
"... Schwartz, 1998) to measure self-esteem by assessing automatic associations of self with positive or negative valence. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that two IAT measures defined a factor that was distinct from, but weakly correlated with, a factor defined by standard explicit (self-repor ..."
Abstract - Cited by 257 (24 self) - Add to MetaCart
Schwartz, 1998) to measure self-esteem by assessing automatic associations of self with positive or negative valence. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that two IAT measures defined a factor that was distinct from, but weakly correlated with, a factor defined by standard explicit (self-report) measures of self-esteem. Experiment 2 tested known-groups validity of two IAT gender self-concept measures. Compared with well-established explicit measures, the IAT measures revealed triple the difference in measured masculinity—femininity between men and women. Again, CFA revealed construct divergence between implicit and explicit measures. Experiment 3 assessed the self-esteem IAT's validity in predicting cognitive reactions to success and failure. High implicit self-esteem was associated in the predicted fashion with buffering against adverse effects of failure on two of four measures. This research developed from the assumption that distinct im-plicit and explicit self-esteem constructs require different measure-ment strategies. In particular, the research pursued implications of Greenwald and Banaji's (1995) definition of implicit self-esteem as "the introspectively unidentified (or inaccurately identified) effect of the self-attitude on evaluation of self-associated and
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... Greenwald, & Banaji, 1999; Otten & Wentura, 1999; Pelham & Hetts, 1999; Perdue, Dovidio, Gurtman, & Tyler, 1990). This article reports the first studies that used the Implicit Association Test (IAT; =-=Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998-=-) as the basis for assessing the self s implicit mode of operation. The Implicit Association Test The IAT (Greenwald et al., 1998) is a general-purpose procedure for measuring strengths of automatic a...

Dual-process models in social and cognitive psychology: Conceptual integration and links to underlying memory systems

by Eliot R. Smith, Jamie Decoster, Pers Soc, Psychol Rev, Eliot R. Smith, Jamie Decoster - Personality and Social Psychology Review , 2000
"... On behalf of: ..."
Abstract - Cited by 242 (6 self) - Add to MetaCart
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A decade of system justification theory: Accumulated evidence of conscious and unconscious bolstering of the status quo

by John T. Jost, Mahzarin R. Banaji, Brian A. Nosek - POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGY , 2004
"... Most theories in social and political psychology stress self-interest, intergroup conflict, ethnocentrism, homophily, ingroup bias, outgroup antipathy, dominance, and resistance. System justification theory is influenced by these perspectives—including social identity and social dominance theories—b ..."
Abstract - Cited by 210 (42 self) - Add to MetaCart
Most theories in social and political psychology stress self-interest, intergroup conflict, ethnocentrism, homophily, ingroup bias, outgroup antipathy, dominance, and resistance. System justification theory is influenced by these perspectives—including social identity and social dominance theories—but it departs from them in several respects. Advocates of system justification theory argue that (a) there is a general ideological motive to justify the existing social order, (b) this motive is at least partially responsible for the internalization of inferiority among members of disadvantaged groups, (c) it is observed most readily at an implicit, nonconscious level of awareness and (d) paradoxically, it is sometimes strongest among those who are most harmed by the status quo. This article reviews and integrates 10 years of research on 20 hypotheses derived from a system justification perspective, focusing on the phenomenon of implicit outgroup favoritism among members of disadvantaged groups (including African Americans, the elderly, and gays/lesbians) and its relation to political ideology (especially liberalism-conservatism).

Associative and propositional processes in evaluation: An integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change

by Bertram Gawronski, Galen V. Bodenhausen - Psychological Bulletin , 2006
"... A central theme in recent research on attitudes is the distinction between deliberate, “explicit ” attitudes and automatic, “implicit ” attitudes. The present article provides an integrative review of the available evidence on implicit and explicit attitude change that is guided by a distinction bet ..."
Abstract - Cited by 208 (6 self) - Add to MetaCart
A central theme in recent research on attitudes is the distinction between deliberate, “explicit ” attitudes and automatic, “implicit ” attitudes. The present article provides an integrative review of the available evidence on implicit and explicit attitude change that is guided by a distinction between associative and propositional processes. Whereas associative processes are characterized by mere activation independent of subjective truth or falsity, propositional reasoning is concerned with the validation of evaluations and beliefs. The proposed associative–propositional evaluation (APE) model makes specific assumptions about the mutual interplay of the 2 processes, implying several mechanisms that lead to symmetric or asymmetric changes in implicit and explicit attitudes. The model integrates a broad range of empirical evidence and implies several new predictions for implicit and explicit attitude change.
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...are usually equated with deliberative, self-reported evaluations, the latter are typically inferred from people’s performance on response latency measures, such as the Implicit Association Test (IAT; =-=Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998-=-) or sequential priming tasks (Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997). Even though previous models effectively account for the differential impact of implicit and e...

Stalking the perfect measure of implicit self-esteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited

by Jennifer K. Bosson, William B. Swann, James W. Pennebaker - Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 2000
"... Recent interest in the implicit self-esteem construct has led to the creation and use of several new assessment toots whose psychometric properties have not been fully explored. In this article, the authors investigated the reliability and validity of seven implicit self-esteem measures. The differe ..."
Abstract - Cited by 192 (8 self) - Add to MetaCart
Recent interest in the implicit self-esteem construct has led to the creation and use of several new assessment toots whose psychometric properties have not been fully explored. In this article, the authors investigated the reliability and validity of seven implicit self-esteem measures. The different implicit measures did not correlate with each other, and they correlated only weakly with measures of explicit self-esteem. Only some of the implicit measures demonstrated good test-retest reliabilities, and overall, the implicit measures were limited in their ability to predict our criterion variables. Finally, there was some evidence that implicit self-esteem measures are sensitive to context. The implications of these findings for the future of implicit self-esteem research are discussed. According to Indian folklore, there were once six blind men who had heard of the animal called the elephant but did not know what one was like. To satisfy their curiosity, they decided one day to use their sense of touch to determine the creature's appearance. Matters became confusing, however, when each man touched a different part of the elephant and became convinced that he alone understood its true nature. "The elephant is very like a snake!"

A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept. Psychological Review 109:3–25.

by Anthony G Greenwald , Mahzarin R Banaji , Laurie A Rudman , Shelly D Farnham , Brian A Nosek , Deborah S Mellott , 2002
"... ..."
Abstract - Cited by 190 (40 self) - Add to MetaCart
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...trom, Eliot Smith, Mark VandeKamp, Vivian Zayas, and three anonymous reviewers for comments on earlier drafts. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Anthony G. Greenwald, Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Box 351525, Seattle, WA, USA, 98195-1525. Electronic mail may be sent to agg@u.washington.edu. Abstract. This theoretical integration of social psychology’s main cognitive and affect ive constructs was shaped by three influences: (a) recent widespread interest in automatic and implicit cognition, (b) development of the Implicit Association Test (IAT: Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998), and (c) social psychology's consistency theories of the 1950s – especially Heider’s (1958) balance theory. The balanced identity design is introduced as a method to test correlational predictions of the theory. Data obtained with this method revealed that predicted consistency patterns were strongly apparent in the data for implicit (IAT) measures, but not in those for parallel explicit (self-report) measures. Two additional not-yet-tested predictions of the theory are described. The Cognitive Consistency Theoretical Tradition Theories of cognitive consistency dominated social psychology in...

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