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...of metaphoric and derogatory language used to describe females compared to males (e.g., by Spender 1980), to surveys on the prevalence of sexism in language teaching materials (Hartman and Judd 1978, =-=Porreca 1984-=-). (2) Phonological, lexical, morphosyntactic, and discoursal features of th e language used by men and women (for example, by Labov, 1966 and 1984; and Wolfram, 1969 in the U.S.; Keenan, 1974 in Mala...

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...the content of the textbooks.sAccording to Graci (1989, p. 79), the lack of equality in gender presentation is one of the most frequent problems ofspublished books. Some researchers of ESL textbooks (=-=Porreca, 1984-=-; Lesikin, 2001, among others) have shown themsto contain gender bias.sThen analysis of the content of ESL/EFL textbooks is of utmost importance if we want to find out whether thescontent is interesti...

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...ives for females are usually related to attractiveness whereas those within the categories of reputation (e.g., famous) and intellect (e.g., intelligent) are more likely to be used to describe males (=-=Porreca, 1984-=-). The textbook studies reviewed above mainly concern the content itself. However, some studies investigated textbooks in the discourse level. Poulou (1997) examined mixed-sex dialogues in two textboo...

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...dation. For example:s1) males were over-represented (e.g. Hellinger, 1980), i.e., exclusion; 2) menstended to occupy both more powerful and a greater range of occupational rolessthan did women (e.g., =-=Porreca, 1984-=-); both males and females performed gendersstereotypical activities (e.g., Cincotta, 1978), i.e., subordination and distortionsand 3) women tended to be stereotypically emotional and were more likely ...

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...pe is quantitativesimbalance. As found in other genres, the under-representation of women insschool texts (e.g. Equal Opportunities Commission, 2000; Hellinger, 1980;sLee, 2014b; Lee & Collins, 2008; =-=Porreca, 1984-=-) and the predominance ofsmales as central figures in TV commercials (Siu, 1996) suggest that somespeople still hold to the traditional view that women are of lesser importancesthan men.sAnother form ...

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...1982; Gisnet, 1988; Gupta &sYin, 1990; Hartman & Judd, 1978; ETHEL, 1980; Hill 1980; Cherezal, Jimenez, 1990;sJones et al., 1997; Lee & Collins, 2006; Molina Plaza, 1997; Naish, 1979; Otlowski,s2003; =-=Porreca, 1984-=-; Pugsley, 1992; Rees-Parnell, 1976; Sano, Iida, Hardy, 2001; Stern,s1976), while others focused on French (Cincotta, 1978; Hingley, 1983; Schärer, 2000;sSchmitz, 1975, Stary, 2002), German (Hellinger...

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...ty among young” (Bahiyah et al., 2008, p. 49) learners. This was substantiated by Mukundan and Nimehchisalem (2008) when they assert the importance of textbooks in providing a neutral realistic representation of gender that will inevitably influence learners’ understanding of social equality and national unity especially in the Malaysian context. Language can also be “a primary factor through which gender biases are Iexplicitly and implicitly perpetuate” (McClure, 1992, p. 39). In other words, gender biased language is not apparent as it is usually camouflaged by other more prominent aspects. Porreca (1984, p. 705) theorised that: “[t]he role played by language in maintaining and strengthening sexist values…is less widely understood or acknowledged [than economic gender inequality]… probably because linguistic sexism is much more deeply rooted and far more subtle than other forms of sexism.” Mineshima (2008) added that if sexism or gender biases are present in the learners’ text, the ‘harmful’ information could also be transmitted to learners subconsciously. Gershuny (1977) warned that textbooks aiming to teach the specifics of academic discipline have concurrently taught secondary information ...

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...opment of a school children's nonsexist dictionary, discusses nouns used to describe women and men. Before compiling their dictionary, the lexicographers analyze five million words from American children's textbooks. They found that although there are actually more women than men in the real world, these textbooks contained over seven times as many men as women and more than twice as many boys as girls. Yet, the word mother occurred more frequently than father. There were also three times as many wives as husbands, indicating that all in all the main character or speaker in the text was male. Porreca (1984) investigated how sexism is manifested in ESL textbooks and with what consequences. In a content analysis of 15 widely-used ESL textbooks, she focused on the categories of firstness, omission in texts and illustrations, occupations, the frequency of male nouns to female nouns, female-exclusive masculine generic constructions, and the types and frequency of adjectives for men and women. In every category of her study, she found that "there is evidence that sexism continues to flourish in ESL textbooks" (p. 718). She reported that "although females comprise slightly over half the population of t...