Income and wage inequality increased rapidly in a number of OECD economies. This report surveys the literature on the determinants of wage and income inequality and presents a framework for analyzing policy. The focus is on human capital policies, but other policies that could also reduce income inequality are considered. The report concludes that increased income inequality in OECD economies reflects greater wage inequality and higher skill premia and that the most likely cause of the rise in skill premia is technical change that has increased the demand for skills and education, though changes in labor market institutions, such as minimum wage laws and the importance of union bargaining, are also likely to have played some role. Although increasing the supply of skills may have some beneficial effects, the most useful policies to reduce inequality would be those that can close the gap of skills between the top and the bottom of the income distribution, such as policies to improve the quality of secondary schooling and to encourage on-the-job training. Disclaimer: The views expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the

(Contract to the Treasury) This paper summarises recent research on changes in New Zealand’s income distribution. It describes how the income distribution has changed during the period 1981 to 1996. It then looks at factors accounting for these changes in the income distribution. The main focus is on social trends, such as household composition, and changes in individual characteristics, such as age, qualifications and employment status. The first part of the paper looks at trends in the income distribution. This shows that income inequality rose in the 1980s and 1990s in New Zealand. The rate of growth was fastest in the 1980s. New Zealand’s level of income inequality has risen substantially relative to the levels in other OECD countries. Wellbeing measured in income terms depends not just on income at a given point in time, but also on the extent to which that income position persists through time. The second major part of this paper focuses on recent research on income ‘dynamics’. Analyses using tax data show that incomes do vary considerably from period to period. However, there is also a considerable degree of income ‘persistence’. The final part of the paper looks at factors contributing to the increase in income inequality. Changes in household composition, (such as the growth in sole parent households and older households without children), account for some of the increase in household income inequality. A growing proportion of workers in their prime earning years, and with higher educational qualifications, has also increased income inequality. These factors can explain up to 50-60 % of the overall increase in income inequality.

Markets are becoming more integrated. Whilst governments have limited influence over this process, they can hasten or hinder the pace of integration and will need to respond to the implications of integration. This paper provides a framework for thinking about the benefits and costs of market integration. It analyses how cross border flows of goods, services, capital and labour affect the living standards of New Zealanders in terms of both productivity and incomes as well as other, broader, aspects of living standards. Particular attention is paid to the areas of spatial economic analysis and national sovereignty and identity. Governments must consider a number of factors when thinking about their stance on integration. Further economic integration promises economic benefits for New Zealanders in terms of greater productivity and higher incomes. One risk, however, is that with increasingly free factor flows, government pursuit of integration may increase the risk of activity relocating offshore. The evidence on the overall effect of integration on income distribution is unclear, however we do know that there will be winners and losers. Decision-making power and feelings of identity seem to be important components of well-being – integration brings with it both risks and opportunities in these areas, as pressure is put on traditional forms of governance and identity, and new forms develop. Deciding how the costs and benefits of integration stack up ultimately involves a number of value judgements – the paper provides a framework and a summary of empirical evidence to help inform those judgements.