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234
Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses
- Psychological Bulletin
, 2002
"... Are Americans more individualistic and less collectivistic than members of other groups? The authors summarize plausible psychological implications of individualism–collectivism (IND-COL), meta-analyze cross-national and within-United States IND-COL differences, and review evidence for effects of IN ..."
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Cited by 484 (9 self)
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Are Americans more individualistic and less collectivistic than members of other groups? The authors summarize plausible psychological implications of individualism–collectivism (IND-COL), meta-analyze cross-national and within-United States IND-COL differences, and review evidence for effects of IND-COL on self-concept, well-being, cognition, and relationality. European Americans were found to be both more individualistic—valuing personal independence more—and less collectivistic—feeling duty to in-groups less—than others. However, European Americans were not more individualistic than African Americans, or Latinos, and not less collectivistic than Japanese or Koreans. Among Asians, only Chinese showed large effects, being both less individualistic and more collectivistic. Moderate IND-COL effects were found on self-concept and relationality, and large effects were found on attribution and cognitive style. To contemporary Americans, being an individualist is not only a good thing; it is a quintessentially American thing. However, the term individualism itself appears to have its roots outside of the North American continent, namely in the French Revolution. It appears that individualism was first used to describe the negative
Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight
- PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW
, 2000
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Development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion
- Self and Identity
"... This article defines the construct of self-compassion and describes the development of the Self-Compassion Scale. Self-compassion entails being kind and understanding toward oneself in instances of pain or failure rather than being harshly self-critical; perceiving one’s experiences as part of the l ..."
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Cited by 181 (16 self)
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This article defines the construct of self-compassion and describes the development of the Self-Compassion Scale. Self-compassion entails being kind and understanding toward oneself in instances of pain or failure rather than being harshly self-critical; perceiving one’s experiences as part of the larger human experience rather than seeing them as isolating; and holding painful thoughts and feelings in mindful awareness rather than over-identifying with them. Evidence for the validity and reliability of the scale is presented in a series of studies. Results indicate that selfcompassion is significantly correlated with positive mental health outcomes such as less depression and anxiety and greater life satisfaction. Evidence is also provided for the discriminant validity of the scale, including with regard to self-esteem measures. Recent years have seen an increasing dialogue between Eastern philosophical
Belief and feeling: Evidence for an accessibility model of emotional self-report
- Psychological Bulletin
, 2002
"... This review organizes a variety of phenomena related to emotional self-report. In doing so, the authors offer an accessibility model that specifies the types of factors that contribute to emotional self-reports under different reporting conditions. One important distinction is between emotion, which ..."
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Cited by 171 (8 self)
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This review organizes a variety of phenomena related to emotional self-report. In doing so, the authors offer an accessibility model that specifies the types of factors that contribute to emotional self-reports under different reporting conditions. One important distinction is between emotion, which is episodic, experiential, and contextual, and beliefs about emotion, which are semantic, conceptual, and decontex-tualized. This distinction is important in understanding the discrepancies that often occur when people are asked to report on feelings they are currently experiencing versus those that they are not currently experiencing. The accessibility model provides an organizing framework for understanding self-reports of emotion and suggests some new directions for research. Emotions are momentary experiences that are intimately tied to the ebb and flow of everyday life, but people also possess gener-representations, whereas emotions are episodic occurrences, emo-tional experience and beliefs about emotion often diverge. This less-than-perfect correspondence has important consequences for understanding emotional self-report. In this article, we explore the
Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself
- Self and Identity
"... This article defines and examines the construct of self-compassion. Self-compassion entails three main components: (a) self-kindness—being kind and understanding toward oneself in instances of pain or failure rather than being harshly self-critical, (b) common humanity—perceiving one’s experiences a ..."
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Cited by 134 (19 self)
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This article defines and examines the construct of self-compassion. Self-compassion entails three main components: (a) self-kindness—being kind and understanding toward oneself in instances of pain or failure rather than being harshly self-critical, (b) common humanity—perceiving one’s experiences as part of the larger human experience rather than seeing them as separating and isolating, and (c) mindfulness—holding painful thoughts and feelings in balanced awareness rather than over-identifying with them. Self-compassion is an emotionally positive self-attitude that should protect against the negative consequences of self-judgment, isolation, and rumination (such as depression). Because of its non-evaluative and interconnected nature, it should also counter the tendencies towards narcissism, self-centeredness, and downward social comparison that have been associated with attempts to maintain self-esteem. The relation of self-compassion to other psycho-logical constructs is examined, its links to psychological functioning are explored, and potential group differences in self-compassion are discussed. In recent years, several criticisms have been made of the use of self-esteem as a primary measure of psychological health (Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996;
Self-regulation and selfpresentation: Regulatory resource depletion impairs impression management and effortful self-presentation depletes regulatory resources
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 2005
"... Self-presentation may require self-regulation, especially when familiar or dispositional tendencies must be overridden in service of the desired impression. Studies 1–4 showed that self-presentation under challenging conditions or according to counternormative patterns (presenting oneself modestly t ..."
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Cited by 125 (26 self)
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Self-presentation may require self-regulation, especially when familiar or dispositional tendencies must be overridden in service of the desired impression. Studies 1–4 showed that self-presentation under challenging conditions or according to counternormative patterns (presenting oneself modestly to strangers, boastfully to friends, contrary to gender norms, to a skeptical audience, or while being a racial token) led to impaired self-regulation later, suggesting that those self-presentations depleted selfregulatory resources. When self-presentation conformed to familiar, normative, or dispositional patterns, self-regulation was less implicated. Studies 5–8 showed that when resources for self-regulation had been depleted by prior acts of self-control, self-presentation drifted toward less-effective patterns (talking too much, overly or insufficiently intimate disclosures, or egotistical arrogance). Thus, inner processes may serve interpersonal functions, although optimal interpersonal activity exacts a short-term cost. The attentive pupil who wishes to be attentive, his eyes riveted on the teacher, his ears open wide, so exhausts himself in playing the attentive role that he ends up by no longer hearing anything. —John Paul Sartre One of the most vital skills in human social life involves
The Pleasures and Pains of Distinct Self-Construals: The Role of Interdependence in Regulatory Focus
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 2000
"... Regulatory focus theory distinguishes between self-regulatory processes that focus upon promotion and prevention strategies for goal pursuit. Five studies provide support for the hypothesis that these strategies differ for individuals with distinct self-construals. Specifically, individuals with a d ..."
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Cited by 114 (12 self)
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Regulatory focus theory distinguishes between self-regulatory processes that focus upon promotion and prevention strategies for goal pursuit. Five studies provide support for the hypothesis that these strategies differ for individuals with distinct self-construals. Specifically, individuals with a dominant independent self-construal were predicted to place more emphasis on promotion focused information, and those with a dominant interdependent self-construal on prevention focused information. Support for this hypothesis was obtained for participants who scored high versus low on the Independence-Interdependence scale, participants who were presented with an independent versus interdependent situation, and participants from a western versus eastern culture. The influence of interdependence on regulatory focus was observed in both importance ratings of information and affective responses consistent with promotion or prevention focus. “My daughter thinks going to school here is just
The relational self: An interpersonal social-cognitive theory
- Psychological Review
, 2002
"... The authors propose an interpersonal social–cognitive theory of the self and personality, the relational self, in which knowledge about the self is linked with knowledge about significant others, and each linkage embodies a self–other relationship. Mental representations of significant others are ac ..."
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Cited by 106 (12 self)
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The authors propose an interpersonal social–cognitive theory of the self and personality, the relational self, in which knowledge about the self is linked with knowledge about significant others, and each linkage embodies a self–other relationship. Mental representations of significant others are activated and used in interpersonal encounters in the social–cognitive phenomenon of transference (S. M. Andersen & N. S. Glassman, 1996), and this evokes the relational self. Variability in relational selves depends on interpersonal contextual cues, whereas stability derives from the chronic accessibility of significant-other representations. Relational selves function in if–then terms (W. Mischel & Y. Shoda, 1995), in which ifs are situations triggering transference, and thens are relational selves. An individual’s repertoire of relational selves is a source of interpersonal patterns involving affect, motivation, self-evaluation, and self-regulation.
The relationalinterdependent self-construal and relationships
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 2000
"... Examination of the assumptions underlying consistency perspectives in social and personality psychol-ogy reveals that they are based on an independent, individualistic view of the self. If the self is constructed as relational or interdependent with others, consistency may be less important in socia ..."
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Cited by 103 (5 self)
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Examination of the assumptions underlying consistency perspectives in social and personality psychol-ogy reveals that they are based on an independent, individualistic view of the self. If the self is constructed as relational or interdependent with others, consistency may be less important in social behavior and well-being. Using a variety of measures of well-being, the studies showed that there is a weaker relation between consistency and well-being for individuals with a highly relational self-construal than for those with a low relational self-construal. Study 3 examined the association between the self-construal, consistency, authenticity, and well-being. These findings reveal the importance of a cultural analysis of theories of the self, personality, and well-being for further theory development. In Western cultural contexts, consistency is a good thing. People who are perceived as behaving consistently across situations are evaluated positively (Suh, 2002), but the inconsistent person is described negatively, with terms such as “waffler ” or “two-faced.” Consequently, Western theories of social behavior and personality assume the importance and value of consistency. Theories of attitude change (Aronson, 1969; Festinger, 1957), attribution
A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys
- Psychological Bulletin
, 2006
"... Theory and research on sex differences in adjustment focus largely on parental, societal, and biological influences. However, it also is important to consider how peers contribute to girls ’ and boys ’ develop-ment. This article provides a critical review of sex differences in several peer relations ..."
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Cited by 99 (1 self)
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Theory and research on sex differences in adjustment focus largely on parental, societal, and biological influences. However, it also is important to consider how peers contribute to girls ’ and boys ’ develop-ment. This article provides a critical review of sex differences in several peer relationship processes, including behavioral and social–cognitive styles, stress and coping, and relationship provisions. The authors present a speculative peer-socialization model based on this review in which the implications of these sex differences for girls ’ and boys ’ emotional and behavioral development are considered. Central to this model is the idea that sex-linked relationship processes have costs and benefits for girls ’ and boys’ adjustment. Finally, the authors present recent research testing certain model components and propose approaches for testing understudied aspects of the model.
