This paper aims to present a review of recent as well as classic image registration methods. Image registration is the process of overlaying images (two or more) of the same scene taken at different times, from different viewpoints, and/or by different sensors. The registration geometrically align two images (the reference and sensed images). The reviewed approaches are classified according to their nature (areabased and feature-based) and according to four basic steps of image registration procedure: feature detection, feature matching, mapping function design, and image transformation and resampling. Main contributions, advantages, and drawbacks of the methods are mentioned in the paper. Problematic issues of image registration and outlook for the future research are discussed too. The major goal of the paper is to provide a comprehensive reference source for the researchers involved in image registration, regardless of particular application areas. q 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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Over the last five years, new "voxel-based" approaches have allowed important progress in multimodal image registration, notably due to the increasing use of information-theoretic similarity measures.

Statistical models of shape and appearance are powerful tools for interpreting medical images. We assume a training set of images in which corresponding `landmark' points have been marked on every image. From this data we can compute a statistical model of the shape variation, a model of the texture variation and a model of the correlations between shape and texture. With enough training examples such models should be able to synthesize any image of normal anatomy. By finding the parameters which optimize the match between a synthesized model image and a target image we can locate all the structures represented by the model. Two approaches to the matching will be described. The Active Shape Model essentially matches a model to boundaries in an image. The Active Appearance Model finds model parameters which synthesize a complete image which is as similar as possible to the target image. By using a `difference decomposition' approach the current difference between target image and synthesi...

Detecting regions of change in multiple images of the same scene taken at different times is of widespread interest due to a large number of applications in diverse disciplines, including remote sensing, surveillance, medical diagnosis and treatment, civil infrastructure, and underwater sensing. This paper presents a systematic survey of the common processing steps and core decision rules in modern change detection algorithms, including significance and hypothesis testing, predictive models, the shading model, and background modeling. We also discuss important preprocessing methods, approaches to enforcing the consistency of the change mask, and principles for evaluating and comparing the performance of change detection algorithms. It is hoped that our classification of algorithms into a relatively small number of categories will provide useful guidance to the algorithm designer.

We propose a new method for the intermodal registration of images using a criterion known as mutual information. Our main contribution is an optimizer that we specifically designed for this criterion. We show that this new optimizer is well adapted to a multiresolution approach because it typically converges in fewer criterion evaluations than other optimizers. We have built a multiresolution image pyramid, along with an interpolation process, an optimizer, and the criterion itself, around the unifying concept of spline-processing. This ensures coherence in the way we model data and yields good performance. We have tested our approach in a variety of experimental conditions and report excellent results. We claim an accuracy of about a hundredth of a pixel under ideal conditions. We are also robust since the accuracy is still about a tenth of a pixel under very noisy conditions. In addition, a blind evaluation of our results compares very favorably to the work of several other researchers.

While intensity-based similarity measures are increasingly used for medical image registration, they often rely on implicit assumptions regarding the imaging physics. The motivation of this paper is to clarify the assumptions on which a number of popular similarity measures rely. After formalizing registration based on general image acquisition models, we show that the search for an optimal measure can be cast into a maximum likelihood estimation problem. We then derive similarity measures corresponding to different modeling assumptions and retrieve some well-known measures (correlation coefficient, correlation ratio, mutual information). Finally, we present results of rigid registration between several image modalities to illustrate the importance of choosing an appropriate similarity measure.

We propose to use statistical models of shape and texture as deformable anatomical atlases. By training on sets of labelled examples these can represent both the mean structure and appearance of anatomy in medical images, and the allowable modes of deformation. Given enough training examples such a model should be able synthesise any image of normal anatomy. By finding the parameters which minimise the difference between the synthesised model image and the target image we can locate all the modelled structure. This potentially time consuming step can be solved rapidly using the Active Appearance Model (AAM). In this paper we describe the models and the AAM algorithm and demonstrate the approach on structures in MR brain cross-sections.

Abstract—Motivated by the problem of retinal image registration, this paper introduces and analyzes a new registration algorithm called Dual-Bootstrap Iterative Closest Point (Dual-Bootstrap ICP). The approach is to start from one or more initial, low-order estimates that are only accurate in small image regions, called bootstrap regions. In each bootstrap region, the algorithm iteratively: 1) refines the transformation estimate using constraints only from within the bootstrap region; 2) expands the bootstrap region; and 3) tests to see if a higher order transformation model can be used, stopping when the region expands to cover the overlap between images. Steps 1): and 3), the bootstrap steps, are governed by the covariance matrix of the estimated transformation. Estimation refinement [Step 2)] uses a novel robust version of the ICP algorithm. In registering retinal image pairs, Dual-Bootstrap ICP is initialized by automatically matching individual vascular landmarks, and it aligns images based on detected blood vessel centerlines. The resulting quadratic transformations are accurate to less than a pixel. On tests involving approximately 6000 image pairs, it successfully registered 99.5 % of the pairs containing at least one common landmark, and 100 % of the pairs containing at least one common landmark and at least 35 % image overlap. Index Terms—Iterative closest point, medical imaging, registration, retinal imaging, robust estimation.

In this paper, we first propose a new subdivision of the image information axis uis for the classification of nonrigid registration algorithms. Namely, we introdu) the notion of iconic featuy based (IFB) algorithms, which lie between geometrical and standard intensitybased algorithms fortheyuM both anintensitysimilaritymeasu and a geometrical distance. Then we present a new registration energyfor IFB registration that generalizes some of the existing techniquML We compareou algorithm with other registration approaches, and show the advantages of this energy. Besides, we also present a fasttechniqu for thecompukUy)- of local statistics between images, which tuchou to beuy-UM on pairs of images having a complex, nonstationaryrelationship between their intensities, as well as an hybridreguSkq-y)-qL scheme mixing elastic and fluy components. The potential of the algorithm is finallydemonstrated on a clinical application, namelydeep brainstimuMUq-y of a Parkinsonian patient. Registration of pre- and immediate postoperative MR images allow toqu--MSy)WS range of the deformationdu topneuU3y)W3Mflover the entire brain,thu yielding tomeasuMy)W3 of the deformation aroun the preoperatively computed stereotactic targets.