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Wireless sensor networks: a survey
, 2002
"... This paper describes the concept of sensor networks which has been made viable by the convergence of microelectro-mechanical systems technology, wireless communications and digital electronics. First, the sensing tasks and the potential sensor networks applications are explored, and a review of fact ..."
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Cited by 2008 (23 self)
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This paper describes the concept of sensor networks which has been made viable by the convergence of microelectro-mechanical systems technology, wireless communications and digital electronics. First, the sensing tasks and the potential sensor networks applications are explored, and a review of factors influencing the design of sensor networks is provided. Then, the communication architecture for sensor networks is outlined, and the algorithms and protocols developed for each layer in the literature are explored. Open research issues for the realization of sensor networks are
An Energy-Efficient MAC Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks
, 2002
"... This paper proposes S-MAC, a medium-access control (MAC) protocol designed for wireless sensor networks. Wireless sensor networks use battery-operated computing and sensing devices. A network of these devices will collaborate for a common application such as environmental monitoring. We expect senso ..."
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Cited by 1517 (36 self)
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This paper proposes S-MAC, a medium-access control (MAC) protocol designed for wireless sensor networks. Wireless sensor networks use battery-operated computing and sensing devices. A network of these devices will collaborate for a common application such as environmental monitoring. We expect sensor networks to be deployed in an ad hoc fashion, with individual nodes remaining largely inactive for long periods of time, but then becoming suddenly active when something is detected. These characteristics of sensor networks and applications motivate a MAC that is different from traditional wireless MACs such as IEEE 802.11 in almost every way: energy conservation and self-configuration are primary goals, while per-node fairness and latency are less important. S-MAC uses three novel techniques to reduce energy consumption and support self-configuration. To reduce energy consumption in listening to an idle channel, nodes periodically sleep. Neighboring nodes form virtual clusters to auto-synchronize on sleep schedules. Inspired by PAMAS, S-MAC also sets the radio to sleep during transmissions of other nodes. Unlike PAMAS, it only uses in-channel signaling. Finally, S-MAC applies message passing to reduce contention latency for sensor-network applications that require store-andforward processing as data move through the network. We evaluate our implementation of S-MAC over a sample sensor node, the Mote, developed at University of California, Berkeley. The experiment results show that, on a source node, an 802.11-like MAC consumes 2--6 times more energy than S-MAC for traffic load with messages sent every 1-10s.
A High-Throughput Path Metric for Multi-Hop Wireless Routing
, 2003
"... This paper presents the expected transmission count metric (ETX), which finds high-throughput paths on multi-hop wireless networks. ETX minimizes the expected total number of packet transmissions (including retransmissions) required to successfully deliver a packet to the ultimate destination. The E ..."
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Cited by 1108 (5 self)
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This paper presents the expected transmission count metric (ETX), which finds high-throughput paths on multi-hop wireless networks. ETX minimizes the expected total number of packet transmissions (including retransmissions) required to successfully deliver a packet to the ultimate destination. The ETX metric incorporates the effects of link loss ratios, asymmetry in the loss ratios between the two directions of each link, and interference among the successive links of a path. In contrast, the minimum hop-count metric chooses arbitrarily among the different paths of the same minimum length, regardless of the often large differences in throughput among those paths, and ignoring the possibility that a longer path might offer higher throughput. This
Span: An energy-efficient coordination algorithm for topology maintenance in ad hoc wireless networks
- ACM Wireless Networks Journal
, 2001
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Secure Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks: Attacks and Countermeasures
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, 2003
"... We consider routing security in wireless sensor networks. Many sensor network routing protocols have been proposed, but none of them have been designed with security as agq1( We propose securitygcur forrouting in sensor networks, show how attacks agacks ad-hoc and peer-to-peer networks can be ..."
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Cited by 827 (3 self)
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We consider routing security in wireless sensor networks. Many sensor network routing protocols have been proposed, but none of them have been designed with security as agq1( We propose securitygcur forrouting in sensor networks, show how attacks agacks ad-hoc and peer-to-peer networks can be adapted into powerful attacks agacks sensor networks, introduce two classes of novel attacks agacks sensor networks----sinkholes and HELLO floods, and analyze the security of all the major sensor networkrouting protocols. We describe crippling attacks against all of them and sug@(5 countermeasures anddesig considerations. This is the first such analysis of secure routing in sensor networks.
Routing Techniques in Wireless Sensor Networks: A Survey
- IEEE WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
, 2004
"... Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) consist of small nodes with sensing, computation, and wireless communications capabilities. Many routing, power management, and data dissemination protocols have been specifically designed for WSNs where energy awareness is an essential design issue. The focus, howeve ..."
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Cited by 741 (2 self)
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Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) consist of small nodes with sensing, computation, and wireless communications capabilities. Many routing, power management, and data dissemination protocols have been specifically designed for WSNs where energy awareness is an essential design issue. The focus, however, has been given to the routing protocols which might differ depending on the application and network architecture. In this paper, we present a survey of the state-of-the-art routing techniques in WSNs. We first outline the design challenges for routing protocols in WSNs followed by a comprehensive survey of different routing techniques. Overall, the routing techniques are classified into three categories based on the underlying network structure: flat, hierarchical, and location-based routing. Furthermore, these protocols can be classified into multipath-based, query-based, negotiation-based, QoS-based, and coherent-based depending on the protocol operation. We study the design tradeoffs between energy and communication overhead savings in every routing paradigm. We also highlight the advantages and performance issues of each routing technique. The paper concludes with possible future research areas.
Energy-Efficient Computing for Wildlife Tracking: Design Tradeoffs and Early Experiences with ZebraNet
, 2002
"... Over the past decade, mobile computing and wireless communication have become increasingly important drivers of many new computing applications. The eld of wireless sensor networks particularly focuses on applications involving autonomous use of compute, sensing, and wireless communication devices ..."
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Cited by 719 (8 self)
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Over the past decade, mobile computing and wireless communication have become increasingly important drivers of many new computing applications. The eld of wireless sensor networks particularly focuses on applications involving autonomous use of compute, sensing, and wireless communication devices for both scienti c and commercial purposes. This paper examines the research decisions and design tradeos that arise when applying wireless peer-to-peer networking techniques in a mobile sensor network designed to support wildlife tracking for biology research.
Directed Diffusion for Wireless Sensor Networking
- IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking
, 2003
"... Advances in processor, memory and radio technology will enable small and cheap nodes capable of sensing, communication and computation. Networks of such nodes can coordinate to perform distributed sensing of environmental phenomena. In this paper, we explore the directed diffusion paradigm for such ..."
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Cited by 675 (9 self)
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Advances in processor, memory and radio technology will enable small and cheap nodes capable of sensing, communication and computation. Networks of such nodes can coordinate to perform distributed sensing of environmental phenomena. In this paper, we explore the directed diffusion paradigm for such coordination. Directed diffusion is datacentric in that all communication is for named data. All nodes in a directed diffusion-based network are application-aware. This enables diffusion to achieve energy savings by selecting empirically good paths and by caching and processing data in-network (e.g., data aggregation). We explore and evaluate the use of directed diffusion for a simple remote-surveillance sensor network analytically and experimentally. Our evaluation indicates that directed diffusion can achieve significant energy savings and can outperform idealized traditional schemes (e.g., omniscient multicast) under the investigated scenarios.
LEAP: Efficient Security Mechanisms for Large-scale Distributed Sensor Networks
, 2003
"... Protocol), a key management protocol for sensor networks that is designed to support in-network processing, while at the same time restricting the security impact of a node compromise to the immediate network neighborhood of the compromised node. The design of the protocol is motivated by the observ ..."
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Cited by 469 (22 self)
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Protocol), a key management protocol for sensor networks that is designed to support in-network processing, while at the same time restricting the security impact of a node compromise to the immediate network neighborhood of the compromised node. The design of the protocol is motivated by the observation that different types of messages exchanged between sensor nodes have different security requirements, and that a single keying mechanism is not suitable for meeting these different security requirements. LEAP supports the establishment of four types of keys for each sensor node – an individual key shared with the base station, a pairwise key shared with another sensor node, a cluster key shared with multiple neighboring nodes, and a group key that is shared by all the nodes in the network. The protocol used for establishing and updating these keys
