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651
Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle?
- Psychological Bulletin,
, 2000
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The Emerging Field of Emotion Regulation: An Integrative Review
- Review of General Psychology
, 1998
"... The emerging field of emotion regulation studies how individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. This review takes an evolutionary perspective and characterizes emotion in terms of response tendencies. Emotion regulation is defined a ..."
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Cited by 454 (44 self)
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The emerging field of emotion regulation studies how individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. This review takes an evolutionary perspective and characterizes emotion in terms of response tendencies. Emotion regulation is defined and distinguished from coping, mood regulation, defense, and affect regulation. In the increasingly specialized discipline of psychology, the field of emotion regulation cuts across traditional boundaries and provides common ground. According to a process model of emotion regulation, emotion may be regulated at five points in the emotion generative process: (a) selection of the situation, (b) modification of the situation, (c) deployment of attention, (d) change of cognitions, and (e) modulation of responses. The field of emotion regulation promises new insights into age-old questions about how people manage their emotions. Conquer your passions and you conquer the wodd.---Hindu proverb To yield to man's emotions will assuredly lead to strife and disorderliness.... It is only under the influence of teachers and laws.., that courtesy will be observed, etiquette respected, and order restored.
Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being
, 2003
"... Five studies tested two general hypotheses: Individuals differ in their use of emotion regulation strategies such as reappraisal and suppression, and these individual differences have implications for affect, well-being, and social relationships. Study 1 presents new measures of the habitual use of ..."
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Cited by 411 (41 self)
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Five studies tested two general hypotheses: Individuals differ in their use of emotion regulation strategies such as reappraisal and suppression, and these individual differences have implications for affect, well-being, and social relationships. Study 1 presents new measures of the habitual use of reappraisal and suppression. Study 2 examines convergent and discriminant validity. Study 3 shows that reappraisers experience and express greater positive emotion and lesser negative emotion, whereas suppressors experience and express lesser positive emotion, yet experience greater negative emotion. Study 4 indicates that using reappraisal is associated with better interpersonal functioning, whereas using suppression is associated with worse interpersonal functioning. Study 5 shows that using reappraisal is related positively to well-being, whereas using suppression is related negatively. Emotions have long been viewed as passions that come and go, more or less of their own accord (Solomon, 1976). However, there is a growing appreciation that individuals exert considerable con-trol over their emotions, using a wide range of strategies to influence which emotions they have and when they have them (Gross, 1998). Do individuals differ systematically in their use of particular emotion regulation strategies? If so, do these individual differences have important implications for adaptation? In this article, we describe five studies that examine individual differences in the use of two common emotion regulation strate-gies—cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. In Study 1, we present brief scales to measure individual differences in the chronic use of these two strategies, and address psychomet-ric issues as well as gender and ethnicity effects. In Study 2, we link our new emotion regulation constructs to conceptually related individual differences and address potential confounds. Studies 3–5 examine the consequences of these emotion regulation strat-egies in three important domains of adaptation: experience and expression of emotion, interpersonal functioning, and personal well-being.
A domain-independent framework for modeling emotion
- Journal of Cognitive Systems Research
, 2004
"... The question is not whether intelligent machines can have any emotions, but whether machines can be intelligent without any emotions. – Marvin Minsky, (Minsky, 1986) p. 163 In every art form it is the emotional content that makes the difference between mere technical skill and true art. ..."
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Cited by 259 (31 self)
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The question is not whether intelligent machines can have any emotions, but whether machines can be intelligent without any emotions. – Marvin Minsky, (Minsky, 1986) p. 163 In every art form it is the emotional content that makes the difference between mere technical skill and true art.
Positive affect and the other side of coping
- American Psychologist
, 2000
"... Although research on coping over the past 30 years has produced convergent evidence about the functions of cop-ing and the factors that influence it, psychologists still have a great deal to learn about how coping mechanisms affect diverse outcomes. One of the reasons more progress has not been made ..."
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Cited by 153 (1 self)
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Although research on coping over the past 30 years has produced convergent evidence about the functions of cop-ing and the factors that influence it, psychologists still have a great deal to learn about how coping mechanisms affect diverse outcomes. One of the reasons more progress has not been made is the almost exclusive focus on negative outcomes in the stress process. Coping theory and research need to consider positive outcomes as well. The authors focus on one such outcome, positive affect, and review findings about the co-occurrence of positive affect with negative affect during chronic stress, the adaptive func-tions of positive affect during chronic stress, and a special class of meaning-based coping processes that support pos-itive affect during chronic stress. R esearch on coping over the past 30 years has been dominated by contextual models that emphasize,coping by a person situated in a particular stress-ful encounter (e.g., Lazarus, 1966; Lazarus & Folkman,
Beyond the hedonic treadmill: Revising the adaptation theory of well-being.
- American Psychologist,
, 2006
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Healthy and unhealthy emotion regulation: Personality processes, individual differences, and lifespan development
- Journal of Personality
, 2004
"... ABSTRACT Individuals regulate their emotions in a wide variety of ways. Are some forms of emotion regulation healthier than others? We focus on two commonly used emotion regulation strategies: reappraisal (changing the way one thinks about a potentially emotion-eliciting event) and suppression (chan ..."
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Cited by 132 (19 self)
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ABSTRACT Individuals regulate their emotions in a wide variety of ways. Are some forms of emotion regulation healthier than others? We focus on two commonly used emotion regulation strategies: reappraisal (changing the way one thinks about a potentially emotion-eliciting event) and suppression (changing the way one responds behaviorally to an emotion-eliciting event). In the first section, we review experimental findings showing that reappraisal has a healthier profile of short-term affective, cognitive, and social consequences than suppression. In the second section, we review individual-difference findings, which show that using reappraisal to regulate emotions is associated with healthier patterns of affect, social functioning, and well-being than is using suppression. In the third section, we consider issues in the development of reappraisal and suppression and provide new evidence for a normative shift toward an increasingly healthy emotion regulation profile during adulthood (i.e., increases in the use of reappraisal and decreases in the use of suppression). In the extensive literature on emotion, two rather different perspectives have emerged. Are emotions irrational forces that unleash Preparation of this article was supported by Grants MH43948 and MH58147 from the
Searching for the structure of coping: A review and critique of category systems for classifying ways of coping
- Psychological Bulletin
, 2003
"... From analyzing 100 assessments of coping, the authors critiqued strategies and identified best practices for constructing category systems. From current systems, a list of 400 ways of coping was compiled. For constructing lower order categories, the authors concluded that confirmatory factor analysi ..."
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Cited by 124 (4 self)
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From analyzing 100 assessments of coping, the authors critiqued strategies and identified best practices for constructing category systems. From current systems, a list of 400 ways of coping was compiled. For constructing lower order categories, the authors concluded that confirmatory factor analysis should replace the 2 most common strategies (exploratory factor analysis and rational sorting). For higher order categories, they recommend that the 3 most common distinctions (problem- vs. emotion-focused, approach vs. avoidance, and cognitive vs. behavioral) no longer be used. Instead, the authors recommend hierarchical systems of action types (e.g., proximity seeking, accommodation). From analysis of 6 such systems, 13 potential core families of coping were identified. Future steps involve deciding how to organize these families, using their functional homogeneity and distinctiveness, and especially their links to adaptive processes. Coping needs more detailed specification... because of the bewil-dering richness of behavior relevant to it. (Pearlin & Schooler, 1978, p. 4) While there is some empirical support for the existence of... primary dimensions of coping, little information is available about the struc-
Clarifying achievement goals and their impact
- Journal of Personality & Social Psychology
, 2003
"... The study of achievement goals has illuminated basic motivational processes, though controversy surrounds their nature and impact. In 5 studies, including a longitudinal study in a difficult premed course, the authors show that the impact of learning and performance goals depends on how they are ope ..."
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Cited by 123 (3 self)
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The study of achievement goals has illuminated basic motivational processes, though controversy surrounds their nature and impact. In 5 studies, including a longitudinal study in a difficult premed course, the authors show that the impact of learning and performance goals depends on how they are operationalized. Active learning goals predicted active coping, sustained motivation, and higher achieve-ment in the face of challenge. Among performance goals, ability-linked goals predicted withdrawal and poorer performance in the face of challenge (but provided a “boost ” to performance when students met with success); normative goals did not predict decrements in motivation or performance; and outcome goals (wanting a good grade) were in fact equally related to learning goals and ability goals. Ways in which the findings address discrepancies in the literature are discussed. Considerable evidence suggests that much of achievement mo-tivation (e.g., intrinsic interest, strategy use, and persistence) can be understood in terms of the different goals individuals bring to
Buddhism and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
- Cognitive and Behavioral Practice
, 2002
"... The present article presents and reviews the model of psychopathology and treatment underlying Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT). ACT is unusual in that it is linked to a comprehensive active basic program on the nature of human language and cognition (Relational Frame Theory), echoing back to ..."
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Cited by 93 (8 self)
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The present article presents and reviews the model of psychopathology and treatment underlying Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT). ACT is unusual in that it is linked to a comprehensive active basic program on the nature of human language and cognition (Relational Frame Theory), echoing back to an earlier era of behavior therapy in which clinical treatments were consciously based on basic behavioral principles. The evidence from correlational, component, process of change, and outcome comparisons relevant to the model are broadly supportive, but the literature is not mature and many questions have not yet been examined. What evidence is available suggests that ACT works through different processes than active treatment comparisons, including traditional CBT. There are not enough well-controlled studies to conclude that ACT is generally more effective than other active treatments across the range of problems examined, but so far the data seem promising.
