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439
A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance
- American Psychologist
, 1997
"... A general theory of domain identification is used to describe achievement barriers still faced by women in advanced quantitative areas and by African Americans in school. The theory assumes that sustained school success requires identification with school and its subdomains; that societal pressures ..."
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Cited by 700 (10 self)
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A general theory of domain identification is used to describe achievement barriers still faced by women in advanced quantitative areas and by African Americans in school. The theory assumes that sustained school success requires identification with school and its subdomains; that societal pressures on these groups (e.g., economic disadvantage, gender roles) can frustrate this identification; and that in school domains where these groups are negatively stereotyped, those who have become domain identified face the further barrier of stereotype threat, the threat that others ' judgments or their own actions will negatively stereotype them in the domain. Research shows that this threat dramatically depresses the standardized test performance of women and African Americans who are in the academic vanguard of their groups
Stereotype threat and women’s math performance
- Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
, 1999
"... When women perform math, unlike men, they risk being judged by the negative stereotype that women have weaker math ability. We call this predicament stereotype threat and hypothesize that the apprehension it causes may disrupt women’s math performance. In Study 1 we demonstrated that the pattern obs ..."
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Cited by 336 (7 self)
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When women perform math, unlike men, they risk being judged by the negative stereotype that women have weaker math ability. We call this predicament stereotype threat and hypothesize that the apprehension it causes may disrupt women’s math performance. In Study 1 we demonstrated that the pattern observed in the literature that women underperform on difficult (but not easy) math tests was observed among a highly selected sample of men and women. In Study 2 we demonstrated that this difference in performance could be eliminated when we lowered stereotype threat by describing the test as not producing gender differences. However, when the test was described as producing gender differences and stereotype threat was high, women performed substantially worse than equally qualified men did. A third experiment replicated this finding with a less highly selected population and explored the mediation of the effect. The implication that stereotype threat may underlie gender differences in advanced math performance, even This paper was based on a doctoral dissertation completed by Steven J. Spencer under the direction of Claude M. Steele. This research was supported by a National Institute of Mental Health predoctoral
Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem
- In
, 1999
"... Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem asan important cause of violence, but the oppo-site view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears ..."
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Cited by 269 (7 self)
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Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem asan important cause of violence, but the oppo-site view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened gotismwthat is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's uperi-ority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept. Only a minority of human violence can be understood as ra-tional, instrumental behavior aimed at securing or protecting ma-terial rewards. The pragmatic futility of most violence has been widely recognized: Wars harm both sides, most crimes yield little financial gain, terrorism and assassination almost never bring about he desired political changes, most rapes fail to bring sexual pleasure, torture rarely elicits accurate or useful information, and most murderers oon regret heir actions as pointless and self-
Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 1991
"... This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) co ..."
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Cited by 240 (16 self)
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This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) consists of 20 items modified from the widely used Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959). Psychometric analyses revealed that the SSES has 3 correlated factors: performance, social, and appearance self-esteem. Effects of naturally occurring and laboratory failure and of clinical treatment on SSES scores were examined; it was concluded that the SSES is sensitive to these sorts of manipulations. The scale has many potential uses, which include serving as a valid manipulation check index, measuring clinical change in self-esteem, and untangling the confounded relation between mood and self-esteem. There has been a resurgence of interest in examining whether aspects of the self-concept are stable or malleable (Markus & Kunda, 1986). On the one hand, there is considerable evidence that the self-concept is persistent and stable and that people will actively seek information that confirms their self-concept and reject information that threatens their general view of self
Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 1999
"... The processes involved in well-being maintenance among African Americans who differed in their attributions to prejudice were examined. A rejection-identification model was proposed where stable attributions to prejudice represent rejection by the dominant group. This results in a direct and negativ ..."
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Cited by 200 (6 self)
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The processes involved in well-being maintenance among African Americans who differed in their attributions to prejudice were examined. A rejection-identification model was proposed where stable attributions to prejudice represent rejection by the dominant group. This results in a direct and negative effect on well-being. The model also predicts a positive effect on well-being that is mediated by minority group identification. In other words, the generally negative consequences of perceiving oneself as a victim of racial prejudice can be somewhat alleviated by identification with the minority group. Structural equation analyses provided support for the model and ruled out alternative theoretical possibilities. Perceiving prejudice as pervasive produces effects on well-being that are fundamentally different from those that may arise from an unstable attribution to prejudice for a single negative outcome. Since the time of Lewin (1948), social psychological research has reflected an abiding concern for the alleviation of social problems. Given this emphasis, it is not surprising that perspec-tives on prejudice and discrimination have primarily focused on their source—those who are members of dominant social groups. Thus, there are large literatures that have examined individual differences in stereotyped beliefs, prejudicial attitudes, and will-ingness to discriminate against a variety of devalued groups (Ba-
Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
, 1998
"... Research on African American racial identity has utilized 2 distinct approaches. The mainstream approach hasfocused on universal properties associated with ethnic and racial identities. In contrast, the underground approach hasfocused on documenting the qualitative meaning of being African American, ..."
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Cited by 172 (4 self)
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Research on African American racial identity has utilized 2 distinct approaches. The mainstream approach hasfocused on universal properties associated with ethnic and racial identities. In contrast, the underground approach hasfocused on documenting the qualitative meaning of being African American, with an emphasis on the unique cultural and historical experiences of African Americans. The Multidimensional Model ofRacial Identity (MMRI) represents a synthesis of the strengths of these two approaches. The underlying assumptions associated with the model are explored. The modelproposes 4 dimensions ofAfrican American racial identity: salience, centrality, regard, and ideology. A description of these dimensions is provided along with a discussion ofhow they interact to influence behavior at the level ofthe event. We argue that the MMRI has the potential to make contributions to traditional research objectives of both approaches, as well as to provide the impetus to explore new questions. African Americans ' experiences in the United States differ significantly from those of members of other
An organizing framework for collective identity: Articulation and significance of multidimensionality
- Psychological Bulletin
, 2004
"... The authors offer a framework for conceptualizing collective identity that aims to clarify and make distinctions among dimensions of identification that have not always been clearly articulated. Elements of collective identification included in this framework are self-categorization, evaluation, imp ..."
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Cited by 156 (0 self)
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The authors offer a framework for conceptualizing collective identity that aims to clarify and make distinctions among dimensions of identification that have not always been clearly articulated. Elements of collective identification included in this framework are self-categorization, evaluation, importance, attachment and sense of interdependence, social embeddedness, behavioral involvement, and content and meaning. For each element, the authors take note of different labels that have been used to identify what appear to be conceptually equivalent constructs, provide examples of studies that illustrate the concept, and suggest measurement approaches. Further, they discuss the potential links between elements and outcomes and how context moderates these relationships. The authors illustrate the utility of the multidimensional organizing framework by analyzing the different configuration of elements in 4 major theories of identification. In this article we put forward a general conceptual framework for the analysis of collective identity. Although not proposing a theory per se, we offer a strategy by which individual theorists might better articulate the assumptions and the components of their theoretical formulations. In doing so, theorists should be better able to identify points of agreement and dissension between mod-els and to move forward to the development of more integrative theories. It is our belief that by carefully articulating the multiple individual-level elements that constitute collective identification, we arrive in a better position to analyze processes and predict outcomes of identification. In taking on this task, we do not assume that there is a single, consensual definition of collective identity. Indeed, as a number of
Immersive Virtual Environment Technology as a Methodological Tool for Social Psychology
, 2002
"... Historically, at least 3 methodological problems have dogged experimental social psychology: the experimental control–mundane realism trade-off, lack of replication, and unrepresentative sampling. We argue that immersive virtual environment technology (IVET) can help ameliorate, if not solve, these ..."
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Cited by 137 (42 self)
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Historically, at least 3 methodological problems have dogged experimental social psychology: the experimental control–mundane realism trade-off, lack of replication, and unrepresentative sampling. We argue that immersive virtual environment technology (IVET) can help ameliorate, if not solve, these methodological problems and, thus, holds promise as a new social psychological research tool. In this article, we first present an overview of IVET and review IVET-based research within psychology and other fields. Next, we propose a general model of social influence within immersive virtual environments and present some preliminary findings regarding its utility for social psychology. Finally, we present a new paradigm for experimental social psychology that may enable researchers to unravel the very fabric of social interaction.
The psychology of self-defense: self-affirmation theory
- Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
, 2006
"... In major league baseball, a hitter could have a long and productive career by maintaining a.300 average, that is, by getting a base hit 30 % of the time. A great deal of money could be earned and fame accrued. Yet the other 70% of the time, this player would have failed. The vast majority of attempt ..."
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Cited by 135 (10 self)
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In major league baseball, a hitter could have a long and productive career by maintaining a.300 average, that is, by getting a base hit 30 % of the time. A great deal of money could be earned and fame accrued. Yet the other 70% of the time, this player would have failed. The vast majority of attempts to
Evolutionary origins of stigmatization: The functions of social exclusion.
- Psychological Bulletin,
, 2001
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