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Language as Shaped by the Brain
"... It is widely assumed that human learning and the structure of human languages are intimately related. This relationship is frequently suggested to be rooted in a language-specific biological endowment, which encodes universal, but arbitrary, principles of language structure (a universal grammar or U ..."
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Cited by 105 (24 self)
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It is widely assumed that human learning and the structure of human languages are intimately related. This relationship is frequently suggested to be rooted in a language-specific biological endowment, which encodes universal, but arbitrary, principles of language structure (a universal grammar or UG). How might such a UG have evolved? We argue that UG could not have arisen either by biological adaptation or non-adaptationist genetic processes. The resulting puzzle concerning the origin of UG we call the logical problem of language evolution. Because the processes of language change are much more rapid than processes of genetic change, language constitutes a “moving target ” both over time and across different human populations, and hence cannot provide a stable environment to which UG genes could have adapted. We conclude that a biologically determined UG is not evolutionarily viable. Instead, the original motivation for UG—the mesh between learners and languages—arises because language has been shaped to fit the human brain, rather than vice versa. Following Darwin, we view language itself as a complex and interdependent “organism, ” which evolves under selectional pressures from human learning and processing mechanisms. That is, languages are themselves undergoing severe selectional pressure from each generation of language users and learners. This suggests that apparently arbitrary aspects of linguistic structure may result from general learning and processing biases, independent of language. We illustrate how this framework can integrate evidence from different literatures and methodologies to explain core linguistic phenomena, including binding constraints, word order universals, and diachronic language change. 1.
A unified model of language acquisition
, 2004
"... This paper presents an extended formulation of the Competition Model. The extended model is designed to account for a larger range of phenomena in first and second language acquisition, including bilingualism. As in the classic version of the Competition Model, competition is at the core of a set of ..."
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Cited by 46 (7 self)
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This paper presents an extended formulation of the Competition Model. The extended model is designed to account for a larger range of phenomena in first and second language acquisition, including bilingualism. As in the classic version of the Competition Model, competition is at the core of a set of non-modular interacting forces. However, now the various inputs to competition are described in terms of six additional subcomponents: arenas, cues, chunking, storage, codes, and resonance. Learning is viewed as a resonant process that relies on storage, chunking, and support to acquire new mappings.
Neural Plasticity and Consciousness
"... this paper we apply this general strategy to the comparative explanatory gaps, both intermodal and intramodal. We set aside the absolute gap, dividing in hopes of conquering. We believe we can make progress by concentrating on the comparative gaps; whether our approach will help to bridge the absolu ..."
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Cited by 38 (3 self)
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this paper we apply this general strategy to the comparative explanatory gaps, both intermodal and intramodal. We set aside the absolute gap, dividing in hopes of conquering. We believe we can make progress by concentrating on the comparative gaps; whether our approach will help to bridge the absolute gap is a further question. We take our start from consideration of neural plasticity. This phenomenon deserves serious attention from philosophers concerned with explanatory gaps, since it reveals that neural activity in a given area can change its function and its qualitative expression. We introduce a distinction between cortical dominance and cortical deference , and apply it to various examples in which input is rerouted either intermodally or intramodally to nonstandard cortical targets. In some cases of rerouting but not others, cortical activity `defers' to the nonstandard sources of input and takes on the qualitative expression typical of the new source. This distinction is puzzling, and raises closely related empirical and philosophical issues. What explains why qualitative character defers to nonstandard inputs in some cases but not others? How does explanation of this difference address the comparative explanatory gaps? After laying out the dominance/deference distinction, with both intermodal and intramodal illustrations, we consider and criticize some possible explanations of it. We then put forward a dynamic sensorimotor account of the distinction. This promising hypothesis has the potential, if correct, to bridge the comparative explanatory gaps
The Childes Project
, 1991
"... Humans demonstrate a remarkable ability to take other people’s perspectives. When we watch movies, we find ourselves identifying with the actors, sensing their joys, hopes, fears, and sorrows. As viewers, we can be moved to exhilaration as we watch our heroes overcome obstacles; or we can be moved t ..."
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Cited by 32 (0 self)
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Humans demonstrate a remarkable ability to take other people’s perspectives. When we watch movies, we find ourselves identifying with the actors, sensing their joys, hopes, fears, and sorrows. As viewers, we can be moved to exhilaration as we watch our heroes overcome obstacles; or we can be moved to tears when they suffer losses and defeats. This process of identification does not always have to be linked to intense emotional involvement. At a soccer match, we can follow the movements of a player moving in to shoot for a goal. We can identify with the player’s position, stance, and maneuvers against the challenges offered by the defenders. We can track the actions, as the player drives toward the goal and kicks the ball into the net. This ability to take the perspective of another person is very general. Just as we follow the movements of dancers, actors, and athletes, we can also follow the thoughts and emotions expressed by others in language. In this paper, we will explore the ways in which language builds upon our basic system for projecting the body image to support a rich system of perspective tracking and mental model construction.
Sound symbolism facilitates early verb learning.
- Cognition
, 2008
"... a b s t r a c t Some words are sound-symbolic in that they involve a non-arbitrary relationship between sound and meaning. Here, we report that 25-month-old children are sensitive to cross-linguistically valid sound-symbolic matches in the domain of action and that this sound symbolism facilitates ..."
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Cited by 24 (2 self)
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a b s t r a c t Some words are sound-symbolic in that they involve a non-arbitrary relationship between sound and meaning. Here, we report that 25-month-old children are sensitive to cross-linguistically valid sound-symbolic matches in the domain of action and that this sound symbolism facilitates verb learning in young children. We constructed a set of novel soundsymbolic verbs whose sounds were judged to match certain actions better than others, as confirmed by adult Japanese-as well as English speakers, and by 2-and 3-year-old Japanese-speaking children. These sound-symbolic verbs, together with other novel nonsound-symbolic verbs, were used in a verb learning task with 3-year-old Japanese children. In line with the previous literature, 3-year-olds could not generalize the meaning of novel non-sound-symbolic verbs on the basis of the sameness of action. However, 3-year-olds could correctly generalize the meaning of novel sound-symbolic verbs. These results suggest that iconic scaffolding by means of sound symbolism plays an important role in early verb learning.
A Unified Model
"... There are three obvious differences between first and second language learners. First, infants who are learning language are also engaged in learning about how the world works. In contrast, second language learners already have a full understanding of the world and human society. Second, infants are ..."
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Cited by 21 (3 self)
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There are three obvious differences between first and second language learners. First, infants who are learning language are also engaged in learning about how the world works. In contrast, second language learners already have a full understanding of the world and human society. Second, infants are able to rely on a highly malleable brain that has not yet been committed to other tasks (MacWhinney, Feldman, Sacco, & Valdes-Perez, 2000). In contrast, second language learners have to deal with a brain that has already been committed in various ways to the task of processing the first language. Third, infants can rely on an intense system of social support from their caregivers (Snow, 1999). In contrast, second language learners are often heavily involved in social and business commitments in their first language that distract them from interactions in the new language. Together, these three differences might suggest that it would make little sense to try to develop a unified model of first and second language acquisition. In fact, many researchers have decided that the two processes are so different that they account for them with totally separate theories. For example, Krashen (1994) sees L1 learning as involving “acquisition” and L2 learning as based instead on “learning.” Others (Bley-Vroman, Felix, & Ioup, 1988; Clahsen &
Synesthesia: A new approach to understanding the development of perception. Developmental Psychology, 45, 175–189. doi:10.1037/a0014171
- Cognition
, 2009
"... In this article, the authors introduce a new theoretical framework for understanding intersensory development. Their approach is based upon insights gained from adults who experience synesthesia, in whom sensory stimuli induce extra cross-modal or intramodal percepts. Synesthesia appears to represen ..."
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Cited by 20 (0 self)
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In this article, the authors introduce a new theoretical framework for understanding intersensory development. Their approach is based upon insights gained from adults who experience synesthesia, in whom sensory stimuli induce extra cross-modal or intramodal percepts. Synesthesia appears to represent one way that typical developmental mechanisms can play out by magnifying connections present in early life that are pruned and/or inhibited during development but persist in muted form in all adults. As such, the study of synesthesia provides valuable insights into the nature of intersensory development. The authors review evidence on the perceptual reality and neural basis of synesthesia, then summarize developmental models and evidence that its underlying mechanisms are universal in adults. They illustrate how evidence for consistent sensory associations in adults leads to predictions about toddlers’ perception and present 3 bodies of work that have confirmed those hypotheses. They end by describing novel hypotheses about intersensory development that arise from this framework. Such intersensory associations appear to reflect intrinsic sensory cortical organization that influences the development of perception and of language and that may constrain the learning of environmentally based associations.
E.: The phenomenology of synaesthesia
- Journal of Consciousness Studies
, 2003
"... This article supplements our earlier paper on synaesthesia published in JCS (Ramachandran & Hubbard, 2001a). We discuss the phenomenology of synaesthesia in greater detail, raise several new questions that have emerged from recent studies, and suggest some tentative answers to these questions. ..."
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Cited by 19 (1 self)
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This article supplements our earlier paper on synaesthesia published in JCS (Ramachandran & Hubbard, 2001a). We discuss the phenomenology of synaesthesia in greater detail, raise several new questions that have emerged from recent studies, and suggest some tentative answers to these questions.
THE TERRIBLE, HORRIBLE, NO GOOD, VERY BAD TRUTH ABOUT MORALITY AND WHAT TO DO ABOUT IT
, 2002
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Synesthesia and the Binding Problem
, 2005
"... For a synesthete, certain stimuli or the thought of certain con-cepts may be accompanied by perceptual qualities not normally experienced by most people (e.g., Cytowic, 1997). For some synesthetes, letter shapes may induce a color (e.g., A is red, B is blue); others may experience gustatory qualitie ..."
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Cited by 15 (4 self)
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For a synesthete, certain stimuli or the thought of certain con-cepts may be accompanied by perceptual qualities not normally experienced by most people (e.g., Cytowic, 1997). For some synesthetes, letter shapes may induce a color (e.g., A is red, B is blue); others may experience gustatory qualities when hearing words ("Jeremy " tastes like shellfish con-somme), or see moving colored shapes when listening to music (e.g., Sibelius's "Valse Triste " may evoke the sight of slowly drifting pink dots). These corre-spondences are consistent across time and idiosyncratic, though some trends
