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...of motivation on reasoning go beyond the posing of directional questions. It seems clear that the examples of motivational reasoning reviewed here could result merely from posing directional questions. Further research is necessary to determine whether motivation plays an additional role. Implications Although the mechanisms underlying motivated reasoning are not yet fully understood, it is now clear that directional goals do affect reasoning. People are more likely to arrive at those conclusions that they want to arrive at. Whatever the mechanisms, the implications are serious and important. Taylor and Brown (1988) implied that motivated reasoning may be beneficial because the resulting illusions promote mental health; unrealistically positive views of oneself and the world are often adaptive. This seems true for illusory beliefs that do not serve as the basis for important action. But motivated illusions can be dangerous when they are used to guide behavior and decisions, especially in those cases in which objective rea7 It is known that actors' responses are not due only to expectancies, because they occur only in the presence of arousal that cannot be attributed to other sources (Cooper & Fazio, 1984...

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..., 1979; Sherif & Cantril, 1947). Recent reviews have further expanded the case for importance of the self-attitude (e.g., Beck, 1979; Greenwald & Pratkanis, 1984; Seligman, 199 1; Steele, 1988; S. E. =-=Taylor & Brown, 1988-=-; Tesser, 1988). In the course of examining available evidence for the implicit operation of attitudes, evidence for implicit operation specifically of the attitude toward self was so prominent as to ...

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...realistic thinking is an important criterion of adjustment is incorrect, because research has demonstrated that well-adjusted individuals characteristically maintain positive illusions (see review in =-=Taylor & Brown, 1988-=-). According to CEST, this paradox is readily resolved once it is recognized that selfevaluation is influenced by both the need to maintain a realistic, coherent conceptual system and the need for sel...

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... the sociable, the nonanxious, the nondespondent, and the social reformers take an optimistic view of their personal efficacy to exercise influence over events that affect their lives (Bandura, 1986; =-=Taylor & Brown, 1988-=-). If not unrealistically exaggerated, such self-beliefs foster the perseverant effort needed for personal and social accomplishments. The findings of laboratory studies are in accord with the records...

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...ch as denial, isolation, and intellectualization fall under this broad heading. The tendency to interpret events more positively than warranted also may be included (S. E. Taylor & Armor, 1996; S. E. =-=Taylor & Brown, 1988-=-). Another form of cognitive change that has received attention is downward social comparison, which involves comparing one's situation with that of a less fortunate person, thereby altering one's con...

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...ngs of the incompetent are the only reason people overestimate their abilities relative to their peers. We have little doubt that other factors such as motivational biases (Alicke, 1985; Brown, 1986; =-=Taylor & Brown, 1988-=-), self-serving trait definitions (Dunning & Cohen, 1992; Dunning et al., 1989), selective recall of past behavior (Sanitioso, Kunda, & Fong, 1990), and the tendency to ignore the proficiencies of oth...

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..., more noble pursuits (Mill, 1873/1989). These observations, combined with the finding that most people (even the disabled, abused, and unemployed people) report themselves to be happy (Diener, 1993; =-=Taylor & Brown, 1988-=-), raise questions (theoretical, philosophical, empirical) about the scientific attention lavished on happiness and positive affect, particularly at the expense of other aspects of positive functionin...