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The unbearable automaticity of being
- AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST
, 1999
"... What was noted by E. J. hanger (1978) remains true today: that much of contemporary psychological research is based on the assumption that people are consciously and systematically processing incoming information in order to construe and interpret their world and to plan and engage in courses of act ..."
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Cited by 604 (17 self)
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What was noted by E. J. hanger (1978) remains true today: that much of contemporary psychological research is based on the assumption that people are consciously and systematically processing incoming information in order to construe and interpret their world and to plan and engage in courses of action. As did E. J. hanger, the authors question this assumption. First, they review evidence that the ability to exercise such conscious, intentional control is actually quite limited, so that most of moment-to-moment psychological life must occur through nonconscious means if it is to occur at all. The authors then describe the different possible mechanisms that produce automatic, environmental control over these various phenomena and review evidence establishing both the existence of these mechanisms as well as their consequences for judgments, emotions, and
Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle?
- Psychological Bulletin,
, 2000
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Reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
, 2004
"... This article describes a 2-systems model that explains social behavior as a joint function of reflective and impulsive processes. In particular, it is assumed that social behavior is controlled by 2 interacting systems that follow different operating principles. The reflective system generates behav ..."
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Cited by 365 (5 self)
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This article describes a 2-systems model that explains social behavior as a joint function of reflective and impulsive processes. In particular, it is assumed that social behavior is controlled by 2 interacting systems that follow different operating principles. The reflective system generates behavioral decisions that are based on knowledge about facts and values, whereas the impulsive system elicits behavior through associative links and motivational orientations. The proposed model describes how the 2 systems interact at various stages of processing, and how their outputs may determine behavior in a synergistic or antagonistic fashion. It extends previous models by integrating motivational components that allow more precise predictions of behavior. The implications of this reflective–impulsive model are applied to various phenomena from social psychology and beyond. Extending previous dual-process accounts, this model is not limited to specific domains of mental functioning and attempts to integrate cognitive, motivational, and behavioral mechanisms. In the history of attempts to discover the causes of human behavior, the most widespread explanations are based on the assumption that human beings do what they believe is good for them. Thus, they are construed as “rational animals ” capable of recognizing the value or utility of their actions. At the same time, however, it is obvious that human beings do not always act this way; that is, under certain circumstances people behave in ways that do not reflect their values. To account for this phenomenon, to which the Greek philosophers gave the name akrasia (e.g., Mele, 1992), several strategies have been pursued. The first strategy assumes ignorance or lack of knowledge on the part of the actor. Socrates, for example, claimed that if people only knew what is good for them, they would act accordingly. A similar position is held by modern economists who imply that irrational decisions This article received the 2003 Theoretical Innovation Price of the
The automated will: Nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 2001
"... It is proposed that goals can be activated outside of awareness and then operate nonconsciously to guide self-regulation effectively (J. A. Bargh, 1990). Five experiments are reported in which the goal either to perform well or to cooperate was activated, without the awareness of participants, throu ..."
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Cited by 308 (20 self)
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It is proposed that goals can be activated outside of awareness and then operate nonconsciously to guide self-regulation effectively (J. A. Bargh, 1990). Five experiments are reported in which the goal either to perform well or to cooperate was activated, without the awareness of participants, through a priming manipulation. In Experiment 1 priming of the goal to perform well caused participants to perform comparatively better on an intellectual task. In Experiment 2 priming of the goal to cooperate caused participants to replenish a commonly held resource more readily. Experiment 3 used a dissociation paradigm to rule out perceptual-construal alternative explanations. Experiments 4 and 5 demonstrated that action guided by nonconsciously activated goals manifests two classic content-free features of the pursuit of consciously held goals. Nonconsciously activated goals effectively guide action, enabling adaptation to ongoing situational demands. We must give up the insane illusion that a conscious self, however virtuous and however intelligent, can do its work singlehanded and without assistance. —Aldous Huxley, The Education of an Amphibian Today, most theories of goal pursuit emphasize conscious choice and guidance of behavior on a moment-to-moment basis
The PerceptionBehavior Expressway: Automatic Effects of Social Perception on Social Behavior”,
- Advances in Experimental Social Psychology,
, 2001
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Emobdiment in attitudes, social perception, and emotion
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
, 2005
"... Findings in the social psychology literatures on attitudes, social perception, and emo-tion demonstrate that social information processing involves embodiment, where em-bodiment refers both to actual bodily states and to simulations of experience in the brain's modality-specific systems for per ..."
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Cited by 185 (28 self)
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Findings in the social psychology literatures on attitudes, social perception, and emo-tion demonstrate that social information processing involves embodiment, where em-bodiment refers both to actual bodily states and to simulations of experience in the brain's modality-specific systems for perception, action, and introspection. We show that embodiment underlies social information processing when the perceiver inter-acts with actual social objects (online cognition) and when the perceiver represents social objects in their absence (offline cognition). Although many empirical demon-strations ofsocial embodiment exist, no particularly compelling account ofthem has been offered. We propose that theories ofembodied cognition, such as the Perceptual Symbol Systems (PSS) account (Barsalou, 1999), explain and integrate these find-ings, and that they also suggest exciting new directionsfor research. We compare the PSS account to a variety of related proposals and show how it addresses criticisms that have previously posed problems for the general embodiment approach. Consider the following findings. Wells and Petty (1980) reported that nodding the head (as in agree-ment) while listening to persuasive messages led to more positive attitudes toward the message content than shaking the head (as in disagreement). Caciop-po, Priester, and Berntson (1993) observed that novel Chinese ideographs presented during arm flexion (an action associated with approach) were subsequently evaluated more favorably than ideographs presented during arm extension (an action associated with avoid-ance). Duclos et al. (1989) led participants to adopt The authors thank Vic Ferreira, Art Glenberg, Danny McIntosh, Randy O'Reilly, and Cathy Reed for their helpful comments on vari-
Harvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration Web site.
- Group Dynamics,
, 2002
"... Respondents at an Internet site completed over 600,000 tasks between October 1998 and April 2000 measuring attitudes toward and stereotypes of social groups. Their responses demonstrated, on average, implicit preference for White over Black and young over old and stereotypic associations linking ma ..."
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Cited by 161 (28 self)
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Respondents at an Internet site completed over 600,000 tasks between October 1998 and April 2000 measuring attitudes toward and stereotypes of social groups. Their responses demonstrated, on average, implicit preference for White over Black and young over old and stereotypic associations linking male terms with science and career and female terms with liberal arts and family. The main purpose was to provide a demonstration site at which respondents could experience their implicit attitudes and stereotypes toward social groups. Nevertheless, the data collected are rich in information regarding the operation of attitudes and stereotypes, most notably the strength of implicit attitudes, the association and dissociation between implicit and explicit attitudes, and the effects of group membership on attitudes and stereotypes.
The relation between perception and behavior or how to win a game of Trivial Pursuit
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 1998
"... The authors tested and confirmed the hypothesis that priming a stereotype or trait leads to complex overt behavior in line with this activated stereotype or trait. Specifically, 4 experiments established that priming the stereotype of professors or the trait intelligent enhanced participants ' ..."
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Cited by 156 (12 self)
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The authors tested and confirmed the hypothesis that priming a stereotype or trait leads to complex overt behavior in line with this activated stereotype or trait. Specifically, 4 experiments established that priming the stereotype of professors or the trait intelligent enhanced participants ' performance on a scale measuring general knowledge. Also, priming the stereotype of soccer hooligans or the trait stupid reduced participants ' performance on a general knowledge scale. Results of the experiments revealed (a) that prolonged priming leads to more pronounced behavioral effects and (b) that there is no sign of decay of the effects for at least 15 min. The authors explain their results by claiming that perception has a direct and pervasive impact on overt behavior (cf. J. A. Bargh, M. Chen, & L. Burrows, 1996). Implications for human social behavior are discussed. I am a camera with its shutter open, quite passive, recording, not thinking.--Christopher Isherwood Some time ago, a few members of the Department of Social Psychology of the University of Nijmegen visited a soccer match. After they had parked their car, they walked the remaining mile to the stadium. The psychologists, behaving calmly and orderly
The Internet and social life
- Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 12 (2007) 1143–1168 ª 2007 International Communication Association1165
, 2004
"... ABSTRACT—Much of social life is experienced through mental processes that are not intended and about which one is fairly oblivious. These processes are automatically triggered by features of the immediate social environment, such as the group memberships of other people, the quali-ties of their beha ..."
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Cited by 143 (0 self)
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ABSTRACT—Much of social life is experienced through mental processes that are not intended and about which one is fairly oblivious. These processes are automatically triggered by features of the immediate social environment, such as the group memberships of other people, the quali-ties of their behavior, and features of social situations (e.g., norms, one’s relative power). Recent research has shown these nonconscious influences to extend beyond the per-ception and interpretation of the social world to the actual guidance, over extended time periods, of one’s important goal pursuits and social interactions. KEYWORDS—social cognition; automaticity; unconscious Automaticity refers to control of one’s internal psychological processes by external stimuli and events in one’s immediate environment, often without knowledge or awareness of such control; automatic phenomena are usually contrasted with those processes that are consciously or intentionally put into opera-tion. Given the historical focus of social psychology on social problems (e.g., discrimination, aggression), it is important to understand the extent to which such negative outcomes might occur without the person’s awareness or despite his or her good intentions. But just because social psychologists tend to study social problems does not mean that automatic processes produce only negative outcomes. To the contrary, much current automaticity research has focused on how nonconscious processes contribute to successful self-regulation and adaptation. As traditional ap-proaches to self-regulation have emphasized the role of con-scious, controlled, or executive processes in overcoming impulsive reactions or bad habits, the potential role of noncon-scious self-regulatory processes has been somewhat overlooked until recently. But because only conscious, controlled processes can ‘‘time-travel’’—when the person remembers the past or anticipates the future—nonconscious processes become es-sential for keeping the individual grounded adaptively and ef-fectively in the present (Bargh, 1997). In terms of contemporary dual-process approaches to cognition, then, nonconscious processes appear to serve a default, background regulatory function, freeing the conscious mind from the concerns of the immediate environment.
Stereotype susceptibility: Identity salience and shifts in quantitative performance.
- Psychological Science,
, 1999
"... Abstract-Recent Recent studies have found that the implicit activation of a sociocultural stereotype can influence the performance of the stereotyped individual. In this article, we expand the work on the powerful effects of automatic and unconscious activation (see, e.g., Past research on self-s ..."
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Cited by 134 (8 self)
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Abstract-Recent Recent studies have found that the implicit activation of a sociocultural stereotype can influence the performance of the stereotyped individual. In this article, we expand the work on the powerful effects of automatic and unconscious activation (see, e.g., Past research on self-stereotyping has focused almost exclusively on only one dimension of participants' identity. For example, both A second neglected issue in the research on self-stereotyping is the effect of positive stereotypes. Focusing only on the negative effects of stereotypes associated with particular social categories means that critical dynamics of how stereotypes affect individuals in the real world are ignored. In the studies we report here, we considered both positive and negative stereotypes associated with different identities that can coexist within an individual. Can implicit activation of different dimensions of identity lead individuals to access and behave in accordance with different stereotypes that might help or hinder their academic performance? We examined whether subtly activating different self-stereotypes would affect the quantitative performance of AsianAmerican women. A common cultural stereotype of women, supported by data on test performance, is that they have inferior quantitative skills compared with men STUDY 1 Overview In Study 1, we asked undergraduate Asian-American women to take a quantitative test. We hypothesized that their performance would be depressed when their female identity was made salient and enhanced when their Asian identity was made salient, compared with a control group of Asian-American women for whom no particular identity was made salient. 1 Identity salience was manipulated by having participants complete different versions of a questionnaire about residential life at their university. Participants randomly assigned to the female-identity-salient condition had to indicate their sex and answer questions related to their gender identity. Participants in the Asian-identity-salient condition were asked to indicate their ethnicity and to answer questions related to their ethnic identity. In the no-identity-salient control condition, participants were not asked to indicate their gender or their ethnicity, but were asked to answer questions unrelated to either identity. The questionnaires were constructed to make salient the identity of interest (ethnic or gender) implicitly,
