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557
Machines and mindlessness: Social responses to computers
- Journal of Social Issues
, 2000
"... Following Langer (1992), this article reviews a series of experimental studies that demonstrate that individuals mindlessly apply social rules and expectations to computers. The first set of studies illustrates how individuals overuse human social categories, applying gender stereotypes to computers ..."
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Cited by 231 (7 self)
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Following Langer (1992), this article reviews a series of experimental studies that demonstrate that individuals mindlessly apply social rules and expectations to computers. The first set of studies illustrates how individuals overuse human social categories, applying gender stereotypes to computers and ethnically identifying with computer agents. The second set demonstrates that people exhibit overlearned social behaviors such as politeness and reciprocity toward computers. In the third set of studies, premature cognitive commitments are demonstrated: A specialist television set is perceived as providing better content than a generalist television set. A final series of studies demonstrates the depth of social responses with respect to computer “personality. ” Alternative explanations for these findings, such as anthropomorphism and intentional social responses, cannot explain the results. We conclude with an agenda for future research. Computer users approach the personal computer in many different ways. Experienced word processors move smoothly from keyboard to mouse to menu, mixing prose and commands to the computer automatically; the distinction between the hand and the tool blurs (Heidegger, 1977; Winograd & Flores, 1987). Novices cautiously strike each key, fearing that one false move will initiate an uncontrollable series of unwanted events. Game players view computers as *Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Clifford Nass, Department of
The experience of presence: Factor analytic insights
- PRESENCE: TELEOPERATORS & VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS
, 2001
"... Within an embodied cognition framework, it is argued that presence in a virtual environment (VE) develops from the construction of a spatial-functional mental model of the VE. Two cognitive processes lead to this model: the representation of bodily actions as possible actions in the VE, and the supp ..."
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Cited by 136 (7 self)
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Within an embodied cognition framework, it is argued that presence in a virtual environment (VE) develops from the construction of a spatial-functional mental model of the VE. Two cognitive processes lead to this model: the representation of bodily actions as possible actions in the VE, and the suppression of incompatible sensory input. It is hypothesized that the conscious sense of presence reflects these two components as spatial presence and involvement. This prediction was confirmed in two studies (N = 246 and N = 296) assessing self-reports of presence and immersion experiences. Additionally, judgments of “realness ” were observed as a third presence component. A second-order factor analysis showed a distinction between presence, immersion, and interaction factors. Building on these results, a thirteen-item presence scale consisting of three independent components was developed and verified using confirmatory factor analyses across the two studies.
Taking Steps: The Influence of a Walking Technique on Presence in Virtual Reality
- ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction
, 1995
"... This paper presents an interactive technique for moving through an immersive virtual environment (or "virtual reality"). The technique is suitable for applications where locomotion is restricted to ground level. The technique is derived from the idea that presence in virtual environments m ..."
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Cited by 113 (10 self)
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This paper presents an interactive technique for moving through an immersive virtual environment (or "virtual reality"). The technique is suitable for applications where locomotion is restricted to ground level. The technique is derived from the idea that presence in virtual environments may be enhanced the stronger the match between proprioceptive information from human body movements, and sensory feedback from the computer generated displays. The technique is an attempt to simulate body movements associated with walking. The participant "walks in place " to move through the virtual environment across distances greater than the physical limitations imposed by the electro-magnetic tracking devices. A neural network is used to analyse the stream of coordinates from the head-mounted display, to determine whether or not the participant is walking on the spot. Whenever it determines the walking behaviour, the participant is moved through virtual space in the direction of gaze. We discuss two experimental studies to assess the impact on presence of this method in comparison to the usual hand pointing method of navigation in virtual reality. The studies suggest that subjective rating of presence is enhanced by the walking method provided that participants subjectively associate with the virtual body provided in the environment. An application of the technique to climbing steps and ladders is also presented.
A New Marketing Paradigm for Electronic Commerce
, 1996
"... The World Wide Web possesses unique characteristics which distinguish it in important ways from traditional commercial communications environments. Because the Web presents a fundamentally different environment for marketing activities than traditional media, conventional marketing activities are be ..."
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Cited by 94 (6 self)
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The World Wide Web possesses unique characteristics which distinguish it in important ways from traditional commercial communications environments. Because the Web presents a fundamentally different environment for marketing activities than traditional media, conventional marketing activities are becoming transformed, as they are often difficult to implement in their present form. In this paper, we discuss the idea that these changes portend an evolution in the "marketing concept" and argue that in order for marketing efforts to be successful in this new medium, a new business paradigm is required. In this new approach, the marketing function must be reconstructed to facilitate electronic commerce in the emerging electronic society underlying the Web. 2 A New Marketing Paradigm for Electronic Commerce The World Wide Web, the first and current networked global implementation of a hypermedia computer-mediated environment (CME), is increasingly being recognized as an important emerging...
Presence: Concept, determinants and measurement
, 2000
"... The concept of presence, i.e. the sensation of `being there' in a mediated environment, has received substantial attention from the virtual reality community, and is becoming increasingly relevant both to broadcasters and display developers. Although research into presence is still at an early ..."
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Cited by 93 (9 self)
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The concept of presence, i.e. the sensation of `being there' in a mediated environment, has received substantial attention from the virtual reality community, and is becoming increasingly relevant both to broadcasters and display developers. Although research into presence is still at an early stage of development, there is a consensus that presence has multiple determinants. To identify and test which parameters affect presence, a reliable, robust and valid means of measuring presence is required. In this paper, we describe the categories of factors thought to have an impact on presence. Furthermore, we present an overview of various approaches taken to measuring presence, which can be divided into two general categories: subjective measures and objective corroborative measures. Since presence is a subjective experience, the most direct way of assessment is through users' subjective report. This approach has serious limitations however, and should be used judiciously. Objective measures, such as postural, physiological or social responses to media, can be used to corroborate subjective measures, thereby overcoming some of their limitations. At present, the most promising direction for presence measurement is to develop and use an aggregate measure of presence that is comprised of both subjective and objective components, tailored to the specific medium under study.
Human Factors Issues in Virtual Environments: A Review of the Literature
- PRESENCE
, 1998
"... Virtual environments are envisioned as being systems that will enhance the communication between humans and computers. If virtual systems are to be effective and well received by their users, considerable human-factors research needs to be accomplished. This paper provides an overview of many of the ..."
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Cited by 92 (2 self)
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Virtual environments are envisioned as being systems that will enhance the communication between humans and computers. If virtual systems are to be effective and well received by their users, considerable human-factors research needs to be accomplished. This paper provides an overview of many of these human-factors issues, including human performance efficiency in virtual worlds (which is likely influenced by task characteristics, user characteristics, human sensory and motor physiology, multimodal interaction, and the potential need for new design metaphors); health and safety issues (of which cybersickness and deleterious physiological aftereffects may pose the most concern); and the social impact of the technology. The challenges each of these factors present to the effective design of virtual environments and systematic approaches to the resolution of each of these issues are discussed.
Immersive virtual environment technology as a basic research tool in psychology.
- Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers,
, 1999
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Persuasive computers: perspectives and research directions
- in CHI 98
, 1998
"... www.captology.org ..."
"Real" presence: How different ontologies generate different criteria for presence, telepresence, and virtual presence
, 1999
"... . This article aims at showing that the meaning of `presence' is closely linked to the concept we have of reality, in particular, to the ontology which we more or less explicitly adopt, and that different ontological positions generate different definitions of `presence', `telepresence&apo ..."
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Cited by 89 (19 self)
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. This article aims at showing that the meaning of `presence' is closely linked to the concept we have of reality, in particular, to the ontology which we more or less explicitly adopt, and that different ontological positions generate different definitions of `presence', `telepresence' and `virtual presence'. This leads us to propose a `cultural' concept of presence as a social construction, based on a view of reality typical of social constructionism. Lying at the base of this view are two elements which guarantee an elevated sense of presence: a cultural framework and the possibility of negotiation, both of actions and of their meaning. Within this view, experiencing presence and telepresence does not depend so much on the faithfulness of the reproduction of `physical' aspects of `external reality' -- which is also a social production, and not a primitive or `natural' fact -- as on the capacity of simulation to produce a context in which social actors may communicate and cooperate. ...
Immersion, Presence, and Performance in Virtual Environments: An Experiment with Tri-Dimensional Chess
- ACM Virtual Reality Software and Technology (VRST
, 1996
"... This paper describes an experiment to assess the influence of immersion on performance in immersive virtual environments. The task involved Tri-Dimensional Chess, and required subjects to reproduce on a real chess board the state of the board learned from a sequence of moves witnessed in a virtual e ..."
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Cited by 70 (3 self)
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This paper describes an experiment to assess the influence of immersion on performance in immersive virtual environments. The task involved Tri-Dimensional Chess, and required subjects to reproduce on a real chess board the state of the board learned from a sequence of moves witnessed in a virtual environment. Twenty four subjects were allocated to a factorial design consisting of two levels of immersion (exocentric screen based, and egocentric HMD based), and two kinds of environment (plain and realistic. The results suggest that egocentric subjects performed better than exocentric, and those in the more realistic environment performed better than those in the less realistic environment. Previous knowledge of chess, and amount of virtual practice were also significant, and may be considered as control variables to equalise these factors amongst the subjects. Other things being equal, males remembered the moves better than females, although female performance improved with higher spati...
