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372
Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research
- Psychological Bulletin
, 1998
"... Recent studies of eye movements in reading and other information processing tasks, such as music reading, typing, visual search, and scene perception, are reviewed. The major emphasis of the review is on reading as a specific example of cognitive processing. Basic topics discussed with respect to re ..."
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Cited by 917 (28 self)
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Recent studies of eye movements in reading and other information processing tasks, such as music reading, typing, visual search, and scene perception, are reviewed. The major emphasis of the review is on reading as a specific example of cognitive processing. Basic topics discussed with respect to reading are (a) the characteristics of eye movements, (b) the perceptual span, (c) integration of information across saccades, (d) eye movement control, and (e) individual differences (including dyslexia). Similar topics are discussed with respect to the other tasks examined. The basic theme of the review is that eye movement data reflect moment-to-moment cognitive processes in the various tasks examined. Theoretical and practical considerations concerning the use of eye movement data are also discussed. Many studies using eye movements to investigate cognitive processes have appeared over the past 20 years. In an earlier review, I (Rayner, 1978b) argued that since the mid-1970s we have been in a third era of eye movement research and that the success of research in the current era would depend on the ingenuity of researchers in designing interesting and informative
A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working memory
- Psychological Review
, 1992
"... A theory of the way working memory capacity constrains comprehension is proposed. The theory proposes that both processing and storage are mediated by activation and that the total amount of activation available in working memory varies among individuals. Individual differences in working memory cap ..."
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Cited by 700 (21 self)
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A theory of the way working memory capacity constrains comprehension is proposed. The theory proposes that both processing and storage are mediated by activation and that the total amount of activation available in working memory varies among individuals. Individual differences in working memory capacity for language can account for qualitative and quantitative differences among college-age adults in several aspects of language comprehension. One aspect is syntactic modularity: The larger capacity of some individuals permits interaction among syntactic and pragmatic information, so that their syntactic processes are not informationally encapsulated. Another aspect is syntactic ambiguity: The larger capacity of some individuals permits them to maintain multiple interpretations. The theory is instantiated as a production system model in which the amount of activation available to the model affects how it adapts to the transient computational and storage demands that occur in comprehension. Working memory plays a central role in all forms of complex thinking, such as reasoning, problem solving, and language comprehension. However, its function in language comprehension is especially evident because comprehension entails processing
The role of knowledge in discourse comprehension: A construction-integration model
- Psychological Review
, 1988
"... In contrast to expectation-based, predictive views of discourse comprehension, a model is developed in which the initial processing is strictly bottom-up. Word meanings are activated, propositions are formed, and inferences and elaborations are produced without regard to the discourse context. Howev ..."
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Cited by 476 (7 self)
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In contrast to expectation-based, predictive views of discourse comprehension, a model is developed in which the initial processing is strictly bottom-up. Word meanings are activated, propositions are formed, and inferences and elaborations are produced without regard to the discourse context. However, a network of interrelated items is created in this manner, which can be integrated into a coherent structure through a spreading activation process. Data concerning the time course of word identification in a discourse context are examined. A simulation of arithmetic word-problem under-standing provides a plausible account for some well-known phenomena in this area. Discourse comprehension, from the viewpoint of a computa-tional theory, involves constructing a representation of a dis-course upon which various computations can be performed, the outcomes of which are commonly taken as evidence for com-prehension. Thus, after comprehending a text, one might rea-sonably expect to be able to answer questions about it, recall or summarize it, verify statements about it, paraphrase it, and SO on.
Accurately interpreting clickthrough data as implicit feedback
- In Proceedings of SIGIR
, 2005
"... This paper examines the reliability of implicit feedback generated from clickthrough data in WWW search. Analyzing the users ’ decision process using eyetracking and comparing implicit feedback against manual relevance judgments, we conclude that clicks are informative but biased. While this makes t ..."
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Cited by 434 (7 self)
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This paper examines the reliability of implicit feedback generated from clickthrough data in WWW search. Analyzing the users ’ decision process using eyetracking and comparing implicit feedback against manual relevance judgments, we conclude that clicks are informative but biased. While this makes the interpretation of clicks as absolute relevance judgments difficult, we show that relative preferences derived from clicks are reasonably accurate on average. Categories and Subject Descriptors
Toward a model of eye movement control in reading
- PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW
, 1998
"... The authors present several versions of a general model, titled the E-Z Reader model, of eye movement control in reading. The major goal of the modeling is to relate cognitive processing (specifically aspects of lexical access) to eye movements in reading. The earliest and simplest versions of the m ..."
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Cited by 210 (23 self)
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The authors present several versions of a general model, titled the E-Z Reader model, of eye movement control in reading. The major goal of the modeling is to relate cognitive processing (specifically aspects of lexical access) to eye movements in reading. The earliest and simplest versions of the model (E-Z Readers 1 and 2) merely attempt to explain the total time spent on a word before moving forward (the gaze duration) and the probability of fixating a word; later versions (E-Z Readers 3-5) also attempt to explain the durations of individual fixations on individual words and the number of fixations on individual words. The final version (E-Z Reader 5) appears to be psychologically plausible and gives a good account of many phenomena in reading. It is also a good tool for analyzing eye movement data in reading. Limitations of the model and directions for future research are also discussed.
The use of eye movements in human-computer interaction techniques: What you look at is what you get
- ACM Transactions on Information Systems
, 1991
"... In seeking hitherto-unused methods by which users and computers can comrnumcate, we investigate the usefulness of eye movements as a fast and convenient auxiliary user-to-computer communication mode. The barrier to exploiting this medium has not been eye-tracking tech-nology but the study of interac ..."
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Cited by 191 (11 self)
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In seeking hitherto-unused methods by which users and computers can comrnumcate, we investigate the usefulness of eye movements as a fast and convenient auxiliary user-to-computer communication mode. The barrier to exploiting this medium has not been eye-tracking tech-nology but the study of interaction techniques that incorporate eye movements mto the user-computer dialogue in a natural and unobtrusive way This paper discusses some of the human factors and technical considerations that arise in trying to use eye movements as an input medium, describes our approach and the first eye movement-based interaction techniques that we have devised and implemented in our laboratory, and reports our experiences and observa tions on them. Categories and Subject Descriptors: D.2.2 [Software Engineering]: Tools and Techniques — user interfaces; H. 1.2 [Models and Principles]: User/Machine Systems — human factors; H. 5,2
Evaluating the accuracy of implicit feedback from clicks and query reformulations in web search
- ACM TRANSACTIONS ON INFORMATION SCIENCE (TOIS
, 2007
"... This paper examines the reliability of implicit feedback generated from clickthrough data and query reformulations in WWW search. Analyzing the users ’ decision process using eyetracking and comparing implicit feedback against manual relevance judgments, we conclude that clicks are informative but b ..."
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Cited by 161 (21 self)
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This paper examines the reliability of implicit feedback generated from clickthrough data and query reformulations in WWW search. Analyzing the users ’ decision process using eyetracking and comparing implicit feedback against manual relevance judgments, we conclude that clicks are informative but biased. While this makes the interpretation of clicks as absolute relevance judgments difficult, we show that relative preferences derived from clicks are reasonably accurate on average. We find that such relative preferences are accurate not only between results from an individual query, but across multiple sets of results within chains of query reformulations.
Composition in distributional models of semantics
, 2010
"... Distributional models of semantics have proven themselves invaluable both in cog-nitive modelling of semantic phenomena and also in practical applications. For ex-ample, they have been used to model judgments of semantic similarity (McDonald, 2000) and association (Denhire and Lemaire, 2004; Griffit ..."
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Cited by 148 (3 self)
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Distributional models of semantics have proven themselves invaluable both in cog-nitive modelling of semantic phenomena and also in practical applications. For ex-ample, they have been used to model judgments of semantic similarity (McDonald, 2000) and association (Denhire and Lemaire, 2004; Griffiths et al., 2007) and have been shown to achieve human level performance on synonymy tests (Landuaer and Dumais, 1997; Griffiths et al., 2007) such as those included in the Test of English as Foreign Language (TOEFL). This ability has been put to practical use in automatic the-saurus extraction (Grefenstette, 1994). However, while there has been a considerable amount of research directed at the most effective ways of constructing representations for individual words, the representation of larger constructions, e.g., phrases and sen-tences, has received relatively little attention. In this thesis we examine this issue of how to compose meanings within distributional models of semantics to form represen-tations of multi-word structures. Natural language data typically consists of such complex structures, rather than
Coh-Metrix: Analysis of text on cohesion and language
- M. Louwerse ⁄ Topics in Cognitive Science
, 2004
"... Advances in computational linguistics and discourse processing have made it possible to automate many language- and text-processing mechanisms. We have developed a computer tool called Coh-Metrix, which analyzes texts on over 200 measures of cohesion, language, and readability. Its modules use lexic ..."
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Cited by 140 (39 self)
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Advances in computational linguistics and discourse processing have made it possible to automate many language- and text-processing mechanisms. We have developed a computer tool called Coh-Metrix, which analyzes texts on over 200 measures of cohesion, language, and readability. Its modules use lexicons, part-of-speech classifiers, syntactic parsers, templates, corpora, latent semantic analysis, and other components that are widely used in computational linguistics. After the user enters an English text, Coh-Metrix returns measures requested by the user. In addition, a facility allows the user to store the results of these analyses in data files (such as Text, Excel, and SPSS). Standard text readability formulas scale texts on difficulty by relying on word length and sentence length, whereas Coh-Metrix is sensitive to cohesion relations, world knowledge, and language and discourse characteristics.
Evaluation of Eye Gaze Interaction
, 2000
"... Eye gaze interaction can provide a convenient and natural addition to user-computer dialogues. We have previously reported on our interaction techniques using eye gaze [10]. While our techniques seemed useful in demonstration, we now investigate their strengths and weaknesses in a controlled setting ..."
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Cited by 107 (5 self)
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Eye gaze interaction can provide a convenient and natural addition to user-computer dialogues. We have previously reported on our interaction techniques using eye gaze [10]. While our techniques seemed useful in demonstration, we now investigate their strengths and weaknesses in a controlled setting. In this paper, we present two experiments that compare an interaction technique we developed for object selection based on a where a person is looking with the most commonly used selection method using a mouse. We find that our eye gaze interaction technique is faster than selection with a mouse. The results show that our algorithm, which makes use of knowledge about how the eyes behave, preserves the natural quickness of the eye. Eye gaze interaction is a reasonable addition to computer interaction and is convenient in situations where it is important to use the hands for other tasks. It is particularly beneficial for the larger screen workspaces and virtual environments of the future, and it will become increasingly practical as eye tracker technology matures.
