The evolutionary history of a set of taxa is usually represented by a phylogenetic tree, and this model has greatly facilitated the discussion and testing of hypotheses. However, it is well known that more complex evolutionary scenarios are poorly described by such models. Further, even when

In this paper, we provide a systematic comparison of various evolutionary approaches to multiobjective optimization using six carefully chosen test functions. Each test function involves a particular feature that is known to cause difficulty in the evolutionary optimization process, mainly

A tandem repeat in DNA is two or more contiguous, approximate copies of a pattern of nucleotides. Tandem repeats have been shown to cause human disease, may play a variety of regulatory and evolutionary roles and are important laboratory and analytic tools. Extensive knowledge about pattern size

The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals ' prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of effortful activities (deliberate practice) designed to optimize improvement. Individual differences, even among elite performers, are closely related to assessed amounts of deliberate practice. Many characteristics once believed to reflect innate talent are actually the result of intense practice extended for a minimum of 10 years. Analysis of expert performance provides unique evidence on the potential and limits of extreme environmental adaptation and learning. Our civilization has always recognized exceptional individuals, whose performance in sports, the arts, and science is vastly superior to that of the rest of the population. Speculations on the causes of these individuals ' extraordinary abilities and performance are as old as the first records of their achievements. Early accounts commonly attribute these individuals' outstanding performance to divine intervention, such as the

genetic operations such as crossover (sexual recombination) and mutation. John Holland's pioneering Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems (1975) described how an analog of the evolutionary process can be applied to solving mathematical problems and engineering optimization problems using what

in clustering and Hough transform are demon-strated. Mean shift is also considered as an evolutionary strategy that performs multistart global optimization. Index Terms-Mean shift, gradient descent, global optimiza-tion, Hough transform, cluster analysis, k-means clustering. I.

bias in bargaining may indeed be evolutionary viable. When the inherent toughness of the bargainer is observed by the opponent, this opponent will adjust his behavior accordingly, in a waywhichmayenhancetheactual payoff of the biased bargainer. Suppose, then, that a population consists initially

with recent findings in social, cultural, evolutionary, and biological psychology, as well as anthropology and primatology. Author notes

Evolutionary theory has always been plagued by scantiness of evidence. We see the products of evolution but not much of the process. Most of the story happened long ago, and little remains of the early stages. Especially few traces of behavior remain; only recently were there artefacts that could

-period alternating offer, and dictator games; games where reciprocity is thought to play a role, such as the prisoner’s dilemma and the gift exchange game; and games where competitive behavior is observed, such as Bertrand and Cournot markets, and the guessing game.