Tatsuaki Okamoto and Kazuo Ohta. Universal electronic cash. In Crypto '91, LNCS, pages 324--337. Springer-Verlag, 1992.  Home/Search   Document Not in Database   Summary   Related Articles   Check

....he also proposed anonymous o line e cash system [7] which motivated the research of the e cash system. They achieved double spending prevention of an ecash with cut and choose method. The e cash system proposed by Okamoto and Ohta satis es the requirements of divisibility and transferability [17, 18]. Their scheme overcomes some limitations of the previous e cash system and provides more ecient features than the physical currency. Brands proposed the ecient e cash system with single term method which is more ecient compared with cut and choose method [2] Brands scheme has been used as a ....

T. Okamoto and K. Ohta, \Universal Electronic Cash", In Advances in CryptologyProc. of CRYPTO'91, LNCS 576, Springer-Verlag, pp.324-337, Aug. 1991.

....Bank signs many more coins than useful and, by random choice, requests the user to disclose the structure of some of them. The drawback of this technique is that this increases the communication load between the Bank and the user and the space needed to store coins. There were several improvements [9, 20], and in 1993, appeared schemes without the cutand choose methodology [4, 3, 14, 13] More recently, unconditional anonymity has been criticized because of money laundering or other possible crimes [26] and escrow based schemes were put forward as a new direction of the research [18] 1.2 ....

K. Ohta and T. Okamoto. Universal Electronic Cash. In Crypto '91, LNCS 576, pages 324-337. Springer-Verlag, 1992.

....our paper cash system. Therefore Digital Cash should have the same features as paper cash like: recognizable hence readily acceptable, transferable, untraceable, anonymous and portable and has the ability to make change (some people like Okamoto believe that even the paper cash is undivisable[24]) Here we present in detail some necessary properties of digital cash [21] 1.2.1 Security With security we mean that digital cash cannot be copied and reused. Then we have to minimize the risks for forgery and establish a good authenticity system. Forgery The most obvious risk with any ....

.... that Okamoto believes that even normal paper cash can t satisfy this characteristic by being divisible [10] Three divisible off line schemes have been proposed at a cost of transaction time and additional storage, Eng and Okamoto s scheme [17] Okamoto s scheme [23] and Okamoto and Ohta scheme [24]. 1.2.6 Off line Payment Cash protocols can be implemented in either of two ways Off line or On line. An ideal cash system is the one which works off line [24] The discussion in this report addresses off line payment systems. Off line Off line payment means that Bob submits Alice s ....

[Article contains additional citation context not shown here]

Okamoto T. and Ohta K. (1991), Universal electronic Cash, Advances in Cryptology CRYPTO `91, Springer-Verlag, pp. 324-337.

....is required to be on line or not in the processing of an electronic transaction, Chaum [4] suggested an anonymous on line e cash system and Chaum et al. 5] proposed an anonymous off line e cash system, which satisfies double spending prevention with the cutand choose method. The e cash systems [6], 7] by Okamoto Manuscript received July 20, 2001: approved for publication by Cunsheng Ding, Division I Editor, December 6, 2001. M. Lee is with KFTC, e mail: manho kftc.or.kr. G. Ahn is with SECUi.COM, e mail: tachyon icu.ac.kr. J. Kim is with KISA, e mail: jhk026 kisa.or.kr. J. Park is ....

T. Okamoto and K. Ohta, "Universal electronic cash," In Advances in Cryptology-Proc. of CRYPTO'91, LNCS 576, Springer-Verlag, 1991, pp. 324--337.

....exact coins from the payer to the payee. It can also break the anonymity since the vendor will know the serial numbers on any change he issues and, by colluding with the bank, can discover who deposits the change. 33 To overcome these problems, divisible coins were proposed by Okamoto and Ohta [OO91]. A divisible coin is an electronic coin that can be divided into coins of smaller denominations whose total value is equal to the value of the original coin. Blinded identifying information is included with the divisible coin in such a way that if a user overspends the total value for the coin ....

....the coin her identity is revealed. The schemes work by associating a binary tree, whose nodes represent different denominations, with each divisible coin. However, the split coins, or sub coins, are linkable in that they are known to come from the same original coin. The Okamoto and Ohta scheme [OO91] is based on the inefficient cut and choose technique. Eng and Okamoto [EO94] improved on the efficiency by basing their scheme on Brands single term electronic cash. Okamoto [Oka95] proposed another divisible scheme using single term coins, where the bulk of the computation takes place during ....

T. Okamoto and K. Ohta. Universal electronic cash. In Advances in Cryptology -- CRYPTO '91 Proceedings, pp. 324-37, Lecture Notes in Computer Science vol. 576. SpringerVerlag, Berlin, 1991.

....can be thought of as a bunch of fixed value coins sharing common overhead. In [vA90] Hans van Antwerpen described a di#erent scheme which is more e#cient than [CFN90] and [CdBvH 90] but has the same basic properties. Okamoto and Ohta introduced the idea of divisibility of electronic cash [OO92] This allows a piece of money to be divided into smaller pieces each of which can be spent separately. Their construction satisfies all of the above requirements except the privacy, and the fake privacy of the user is only computationally protected. The most di#cult fraud to counter in ....

Tatsuaki Okamoto and Kazuo Ohta. Universal electronic cash. In J. Feigenbaum, editor, Advances in Cryptology---CRYPTO '91, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 324--337. Springer-Verlag, 1992.

....cannot discover that they have a client who reads those magazines, and thus have no incentive to increase their advertising in those magazines. 1.2.4 Amortized E Cash vs. Divisible E Cash The concept of amortized e cash has been studied previously under the name of divisible e cash ( 25] [26], 7] 9] 27] Divisible e cash is based on the idea of having a coin which can be divided, at spending, into smaller coins. What we call a wallet is what was previously called a (divisible) coin, and what we call a coin is merely the atomic part of a divisible coin. However, 1. It is fair to ....

K. Ohta and T. Okamoto. Universal Electronic Cash. In Advances in Cryptology: Crypto '91, 1992.

....4] is so called the unlinkability , which ensures that requesters can prevent the signer from deriving the exact correspondence between the actual signing process performed by the signer and the signature which later made public. The blind signatures can realize secure electronic payment schemes [1, 5, 6, 7] protecting customers anonymity, and secure voting schemes [8, 9, 10] preserving voters privacy. In a distributed environment, the signed blind messages can be regarded as a fixed amount of electronic money in secure electronic Corresponding author. E mail: lei cc.ee.ntu.edu.tw . 1 payment ....

....signature. Therefore, these schemes are optimal with respect to the threshold signature size and the verification process. In addition to the secure voting schemes [8, 9, 10] to protect voters privacy, the concept of blind signatures has been widely used in secure electronic payment schemes [1, 5, 6, 7]. Up to date, the on line e cash schemes proposed by Chaum [1, 5] are more efficient and practical. The aim of these schemes was to produce an electronic version of money which retains the same properties as paper cash. These schemes involve customers, the bank and the shops and consists of the ....

Okamoto, T and Ohta, K Universal Electronic cash, Proc. of Crypt'91, LNCS 576, Springer-Verlag (1992) 324-337.

....similarities to digital cash. Therefore, some basic technologies for implementing digital tickets have already been developed in the research area of digital cash [8] This section thus compares and contrasts the digital ticket to digital cash as we know it today. The following ten key features [6][7] of digital cash have been proposed. 1) Secure (unable to alter or counterfeit) 2) Anonymous (untraceable) 3) Portable (physical independence) 4) Transferable (5) Off line capable (6) Divisible [7] 7) Infinite duration (persistent) 8) Wide acceptability (trust) 9) User friendly ....

....the digital ticket to digital cash as we know it today. The following ten key features [6] 7] of digital cash have been proposed. 1) Secure (unable to alter or counterfeit) 2) Anonymous (untraceable) 3) Portable (physical independence) 4) Transferable (5) Off line capable (6) Divisible [7] (7) Infinite duration (persistent) 8) Wide acceptability (trust) 9) User friendly (easy to use) 10) Monetary freedom (non political) 6] As a result of our investigation on many physical tickets, we found that required levels on (2) anonymity, 4) transferability, 6) divisibility, and ....

[Article contains additional citation context not shown here]

T. Okamoto and K. Ohta, "Universal Electronic Cash," In Advances in Cryptology, Proceedings of CRYPTO '91, J. Feigenbaum (Ed.), LNCS 576, pp. 324-337.

....signer from deriving the exact correspondence between the actual signing process performed by the signer and the signature which is later made public. In a distributed environment, every signed blind message can be regarded as a fixed amount of electronic money in secure electronic payment systems [1, 6 9], or as a ticket in applications such as secret voting schemes [10 12] The security of the blind signature schemes proposed in [1, 4] is based on the hardness of factorization [13] while the security of the schemes proposed in [2, 5] is based on the hardness of computing discrete logarithm ....

T. Okamoto, K. Ohta, Universal Electronic cash, in: Advances in Cryptology: Proc. Crypt'91, LNCS 576, Springer, New York, 1992, pp. 324--337.

....analyze the withdrawal, the payment, and the deposit subprotocols respectively. In Section 5.9, we conclude and discuss insights gained through our exercise. Finally, in Section 5.10, we include Brands s comments on our analysis. 97 5. 1 Electronic Cash Systems Preliminaries Electronic cash [25, 22, 23, 50, 62, 21, 24, 29, 14, 41, 40, 73, 72, 37], henceforth called ecash, was first proposed by D. Chaum [21] as an alternative to conventional, account based electronic payment schemes. Unlike in account based schemes, where money exists solely as account balances, in ecash systems money can exist in the form of digital tokens as well. This ....

T. Okamoto and K. Ohta. Universal electronic cash. In Advances in Cryptology --- CRYPTO '91 Proceedings, pages 324--337. Springer-Verlag, 1992.

....to make a copy of the piece of cash. A criminal can then double spend the digital cash by spending one copy of cash at one place and the other copy of cash at another. To deter such criminal activity, copying must be made difficult and there must be extreme forms of punishment for this crime. [Oka92] Ensuring Payment Delivery of Goods A digital cash system must provide a way to ensure payment and the delivery of goods. In recent years, the amount of transactions which are performed when the customer and the merchant are not in close proximity has drastically risen. Home shopping networks, ....

....certain information, such as the denomination of the coin, which are necessary for the features of the system. Cut and Choose One method for generating coins that contain the required information, but that provides anonymity for the customer is the cut and choose method. This method is used in [Cha90a, Hay90, Oka92, Sch96]. In [Sch96] when the customer wants to withdraw a coin, she generates n coins in the appropriate format, blinds them each with a different blinding factor as described above, and then sends the coins to the bank. The bank then chooses n 1 of them randomly and asks the customer for the ....

Okamoto, T., and Ohta, K., "Universal Electronic Cash", Proceedings of Crypto 91, pp. 324-337 (1992)

....the development of the electronic marketplace. With a number of payment systems available, people now need ways to analyze these systems and choose the one most suitable to their needs. Some work has been done in the direction of clarifying and classifying the way electronic payment systems work [2, 11, 7, 1, 3, 8]. Some of these works describe payment systems characteristics and their intrinsic requirements [2, 3, 7] while others classify payment systems by their functional behavior [8] We believe a more integrated approach should be used to achieve a broader understanding of electronic payment systems. ....

.... work has been done in the direction of clarifying and classifying the way electronic payment systems work [2, 11, 7, 1, 3, 8] Some of these works describe payment systems characteristics and their intrinsic requirements [2, 3, 7] while others classify payment systems by their functional behavior [8]. We believe a more integrated approach should be used to achieve a broader understanding of electronic payment systems. We will here extend previous work on the classification of electronic payment systems and build a functionality model for those systems. This model was based on the analysis ....

T. Okamoto and K. Ohta. Universal electronic cash. In J. Feigenbaum, editor, Proceedings of Crypto 91, LNCS 576, pages 324--337. Springer-Verlag, 1992.

....have a severely limited capacity for storage and computation [7] There are a few ways to implement exact payments in e cash. The simplest way is to use multiple coins. In this case, the results presented in this paper explain what coins should be withdrawn. Another approach is divisible coins [9, 8, 13]: arbitrary portions of the coin can be spent so long as their sum does not exceed the value of the coin. As expected, the size of a divisible coin and the computational resources (such as time and communication) required for its manipulation are greater than those of non divisible coins. A ....

T. Okamoto and K. Ohta. Universal electronic cash. In Advances in Cryptology: Proc. of Crypto '91, pages 324--337. Springer-Verlag, 1992. 23

....(such as privacy) may be destroyed for the related session. I. B Related Work Since the introduction of anonymous payment schemes by Chaum [17] and practical such schemes by Chaum, Fiat and Naor [18] a large variety of electronic cash schemes offering user privacy has been designed, e.g. [9, 22, 29, 32, 63, 64, 62]. Recently, though, it has been noticed that perfect privacy in the cryptographic sense is seldom perfect in an economical or social sense. The reason is that the privacy may be abused if it cannot be controlled; one example of this was early pointed out by von Solms and Naccache [76] who showed ....

T. Okamoto and K. Ohta, "Universal Electronic Cash," Advances in Cryptology - Proceedings of Crypto '91, pp. 324--337.

.... both the security and the privacy was introduced in [8] and a system was proposed that seems to fit the model (although the nature of the system is such that very little can be proven about this) Since then quite some other systems have been proposed using basically the same ideas (see [1, 7, 8, 22, 23, 29, 30, 35]) In that sense, our system is no exception. In the model of [8] there are three distinct types of participant: a set of users fU 1 ; U k g, a set of shops fS 1 ; S l g and a bank B. For reasons related to mathematical rigor, k and l have to be polynomial in the length of the ....

.... any off line electronic cash system (including ours) can be found in [1, 14] There are some drawbacks of transferability, the most important of them being that information theoretically it can be proven that, during transfer, electronic cash grows in size (see [14] Divisibility (as achieved in [30]) means that electronic cash can be split into pieces in an arbitrary way, summing up to the total amount of the withdrawn information, such that each piece can be spent individually. This also seems to have various drawbacks related to privacy and especially efficiency, although in contrast to ....

[Article contains additional citation context not shown here]

Okamoto, T. and Ohta, K., "Universal electronic cash", Crypto '91, LNCS 576, SpringerVerlag, Berlin 1992, pages 324--337.

....is offered or not. Payments in a privacy protecting electronic cash system are untraceable and unlinkable, just as ordinary coins are. A fairly large body of cryptographic literature is devoted to the design of privacyprotecting off line electronic cash systems. Almost all of this literature [7, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 23, 25, 28, 29, 32, 33, 36, 37, 38, 39] is concerned with systems that only offer traceability as a security measure against double spending, based on a paradigm of Chaum, Fiat and Naor [11] This measure clearly does not offer a security level that is adequate for practical purposes. If an electronic cash system is to be of practical ....

Okamoto, T., Ohta, K., "Universal Electronic Cash," Advances in Cryptology -- CRYPTO '91, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, no. 576, Springer-Verlag, pp. 324--337.

....and Amount Limitedness 2.1 On the importance of non transferability. A considerable amount of work has been done to design payment systems that are transferable (i.e. where a coin received during a payment can be further spent by the receiver without intermediation of a bank, cf e.g. [18, 19, 5, 7]) so that electronic cash enjoys some of the conveniences of physical cash. However physical cash is only conveniently transferable in small amounts (e.g. also by mail) or in large amounts between users that are physically close to each other. It was stated in a recent report on research ....

T. Okamoto and K. Ohta. Universal electronic cash. In Joan Feigenbaum, editor, Proceedings of Advances in Cryptology (CRYPTO '91), volume 576 of LNCS, pages 324--337, Berlin, Germany, August 1992. Springer.

....system is a multi party protocol between a number of users fU i g and a bank B. An electronic cash system should support (at least) all the operations supported by traditional cash. In addition, an electronic cash system should be (at least) as secure as a traditional cash system. Okamoto and Ohta [17] list six properties that are desirable in an electronic cash system: 1. Independence. The security of the digital cash is not dependent on any physical location. The cash can be trasferred through computer networks. 2. Security. The digital cash cannot be copied or reused. 3. ....

T. Okamoto, K. Ohta, "Universal Electronic Cash," Advances in Cryptology--Crypto '91 Proceedings, Springer-Verlag, 1992, pp. 324-337.

....given to individuals. An individual may be tempted to copy and spend the bits representing digital cash more than once, or to try to counterfeit his own bits to represent new cash. Since banks are audited and can be held accountable, there is less danger of them misbehaving. Okamoto and Ohta in [OO91] as well as Medvinsky and Neuman in [MN93] deal with digital cash and hence the individuals have the bits representing cash in their possession which has the risk of duplication. To prevent such a risk, the bank has to keep track of either all the outstanding coins [MN93] or all the coins that ....

....Neuman in [MN93] deal with digital cash and hence the individuals have the bits representing cash in their possession which has the risk of duplication. To prevent such a risk, the bank has to keep track of either all the outstanding coins [MN93] or all the coins that have been previously spent [OO91] and check the list when verifying a transaction. Dukach in [D93] provides a technique for secure electronic payment over an open network like the Internet. However, SNPP (Simple Network Management Protocol) in [D93] does not provide anonymity. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. ....

T. Okamoto and K. Ohta, "Universal Electronic Cash," Proceedings of Crypto '91, pp. 324-337, August 1991.

....of the W3C [JEPI] which is planned to be a universal payment platform that will allow merchants and consumers to transact business over the Internet using many different forms of payment. Furthermore, the research area of anonymous electronic cash and payment is very active; see, e.g. [CFN88, OO91, B93, FY93, LMP94, S96]. There are several systems available; see, e.g. DigiCash s Ecash [Ecash] and Cybercash [CC] At present however, the support of anonymous payment by web web sites is somewhat limited, but it may grow as more and more users are becoming concerned about their privacy. We briefly point out an ....

T. Okamoto and K. Ohta, Universal Electronic Cash. Crypto'91.

....of the last two sections gives a system that fulfills the entire set of the requirements we have put forth. What is E cash: Let us first give a short description of electronic cash. Such systems (in particular off line untraceable electronic cash) have sparked wide interest among cryptographers ([CFN90, FY93, Oka95, CP93b, CP93a, CP93c, PW92, Bra93, FY94, BGK95, DC94, EO94, OO92, FTY96, CMS96, Pai93, CFMT96, Sim96, Tsi97], etc. In its simplest form, an e cash system consists of three parties (a bank B, a user U and a shop S) and four main procedures (account establishment, withdrawal, payment and deposit) In a coin s life cycle, the user U first performs an account establishment protocol to open an account with ....

....possible, i.e. under no cryptographic assumption other than the availability of a source of true randomness. Hence, independently of the strength of the adversary, it is not possible to determine the user s identity with a strategy better than just guessing. There are also e cash systems [Oka95, FTY96, OO92, FY93, CMS96] where anonymity is based on some, preferably well established, cryptographic assumptions. In these schemes an adversary with a high degree of computational power or change in technology (e.g. discovering how to factor large numbers) may allow for the breaking of anonymity. Hence, one can expect ....

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T. Okamoto and K. Ohta. Universal electronic cash. In Advances in Cryptology --- Crypto '91 (Lecture Notes in Computer Science), pages 324--337. Springer-Verlag, 1992.

....tracings, i.e. unblind signatures. The ombudsman will cooperate in producing the above signature in a way that prevents the bank from associating coins with identities without involving the ombudsman. Related Work: A large variety of electronic cash schemes has been designed in recent years [7, 2, 10, 13, 15, 32, 33, 31]. Most off line schemes (introduced by Chaum, Fiat and Naor) use a restricted form of blind signatures, introduced by Chaum [6] to implement anonymity. However, recently, von Solms and Naccache [38] show that schemes with user anonymity are susceptible to two attacks: money laundering and ....

T. Okamoto and K. Ohta, "Universal Electronic Cash," Advances in Cryptology - Proceedings of Crypto '91, 1992, pp. 324-337

....amount of a cheque can later be refunded. This is obviously more flexible than coin based systems, but still less practical than encoding amounts as described in Section 2.1 since the user must contact the bank in order to convert refundable money to spendable money. Another proposal, in [OO92] is to use so called divisible coins. Here the user can split a coin arbitrarily (i.e. this is much like a cheque with refund, where the refund can be spend) These systems offer more flexibility than cheques with refund, but they have not been obtained with the same level of privacy ....

T. Okamoto and K. Ohta. Universal Electronic Cash. In Advances in Cryptology---CRYPTO '91, volume 576 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 324--337, Berlin, 1992. Springer-Verlag.

....the prover refers to the cryptographic capabilities of a third party rather than invoking the third party itself at the time of proof. In the area of electronic cash, third party involvement was reduced. Namely, off line systems (first introduced in [CFN90] and then developed further, in e.g. [OO92, FY93, Fer93b, Bra93b, Oka95]) the bank s (B) involvement in the payment transaction between a user (U) and a receiver (R) was eliminated. Users withdraw electronic coins from the bank and use them to pay a receiver (a shop) The receiver subsequently deposits the coins back to the bank. In the process users remain ....

T. Okamoto and K. Ohta. Universal electronic cash. In Advances in Cryptology --- Crypto '91 (Lecture Notes in Computer Science), pages 324--337. Springer-Verlag, 1992.

....making you lose 100 although he will not get it, you can both tear bills and give each other halves in order to keep each other honest. When he returns, you will exchange the second halves, and then perform a standard payment. Similar issues of trust can arise in many digital cash applications [1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13], since the two parties in the transaction may be geographically Research partly done at DigiCash, the Netherlands. Email address: markus cs.ucsd.edu large distances apart, and also because of the inherent problems of proving that a payment or delivery did or did not take place. In section 2 ....

T. Okamoto, K. Ohta, "Universal Electronic Cash," Crypto '91, pp. 324-337

....4 we describe various applications of unlinkable serial transactions and associated protocol variants. In section 5 we present concluding remarks. 2 Related Work 2. 1 Digital Cash Digital cash, especially anonymous e cash as presented by Chaum et al. 6] is characterized by several requirements [13]: independent of physical requirements, unforgeable and uncopyable, untraceable purchases, off line, transferable, and subdividable. No known e cash system has all of these properties, and certain properties, especially e cash that can be divided into unlinkable change, tend to be computationally ....

T. Okamoto and K. Ohta, "Universal Electronic Cash", CRYPTO91, pp. 324--337.

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Tatsuaki Okamoto and Kazuo Ohta. Universal electronic cash. In Crypto '91, LNCS, pages 324--337. Springer-Verlag, 1992.

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T. Okamoto and K. Ohta. Universal electronic cash. In Advances in Cryptology -- CRYPTO '91, volume 576 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 324--337. Springer-Verlag, 1992.

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T. Okamoto and K. Ohta. Universal electronic cash. In Advances in Cryptology -- CRYPTO'91, volume 576 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 324--337. Springer Verlag, 1992.

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T. Okamoto and K. Ohta. Universal electronic cash. In Advances in Cryptology --- Crypto '91 (Lecture Notes in Computer Science), pages 324--337. Springer-Verlag, 1992.

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T. Okamoto and K. Ohta, Universal Electronic Cash, Crypto'91

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T. Okamoto and K. Ohta. Universal electronic cash. In Advances in Cryptology -- CRYPTO'91, volume 576 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 324--337. Springer Verlag, 1992.

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T. Okamoto and K. Ohta, "Universal Electronic Cash," Advances in Cryptology---CRYPTO '91 Proceedings, SpringerVerlag, 1992, pp. 324--337.

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T. Okamoto and K. Ohta. Universal electronic cash. In Joan Feigenbaum, editor, Proceedings of Advances in Cryptology (CRYPTO '91), volume 576 of LNCS, pages 324--337, Berlin, Germany, August 1992. Springer. 48

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T. Okamoto and K. Ohta. Universal electronic cash. Advances in Cryptology| CRYPTO'91, pages 324-337, Springer-Verlag, 1992.

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T. Okamoto, K. Ohta, "Universal Electronic Cash," Crypto '91, Santa Barbara, CA 11.-15., August 1991, Abstracts, 8.7-8.13, pp. 324-337.

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T. Okamoto and K. Ohta, "Universal Electronic cash," Advances in Cryptology: Proc. of Crypt'91, LNCS 576, pp. 324-337, Springer-Verlag, 1992.

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T. Okamoto, K. Ohta, "Universal Electronic Cash," Crypto '91, Santa Barbara, CA 11.-15., August 1991, Abstracts, 8.7-8.13, pp. 324-337.

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T. Okamoto, K. Ohta, "Universal Electronic Cash," Crypto '91, Santa Barbara, CA 11.-15., August 1991, Abstracts, 8.7-8.13, pp. 324-337.

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OKAMOTO,T.AND OHTA, K. 1992. Universal electronic cash. In Proceedings of the Conference on Advances in Cryptology (CRYPTO '91) Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, 324--337.

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T. Okamoto and K. Ohta, "Universal Electronic Cash," Advances in Cryptology - Proceedings of Crypto '91, pp. 324--337.

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T. Okamoto and K. Ohta, "Universal Electronic Cash," in Advances in Cryptology - CRYPTO '91, vol. 576, Lecture Notes in Computer Science - International Organization for Cryptologic Research, J. Feigenbaum, Ed. Santa Barbara, California, 1991.

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T. Okamoto, K. Ohta, "Universal Electronic Cash," Crypto '91, Santa Barbara, CA 11.-15., August 1991, Abstracts, 8.7-8.13, pp. 324-337.

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