R.C. Arkin, Integrating behavioural, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation, Journal of Robotics and Autonomous Systems Vol. 6, 1990.  Home/Search   Document Not in Database   Summary   Related Articles   Check

....to the sequencing layer for execution. Generally, the planner is invoked and guided by conditions in the sequencing layer, e.g. a task failing or completing. There are many different instantiations of this architecture, including Sapphira [Kon97] SSS [Con92] ATLANTIS [Gat92] RAPs [Fir94] AuRA [Ark90], and Payton s reactive planners [Pay90] In almost all of these, the sequencer plays the role of the main executive, taking advice from the planner and invoking behaviors to accomplish goals. When one thinks of writing robot programs, it is sequencer programs that are the result. In fact, it s ....

....operators: goto, iteration, conditional, and suspension operators. 3.3 Subactivities Colbert supports an execution model in which activities may be invoked as children of an executing activity. This capability supports hierarchical task decomposition, an important method for robot control [Fir94, Ark90]. Consider the task of moving an object from one place to another (taken from [Fir96] It s natural to decompose this into three subtasks: picking up the object, going to the destination, and dropping the object. In Colbert, we would write the following activity. The subactivities pickup, goto, ....

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R. C. Arkin, Integrating behavioral, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation, Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 6:105--122, 1990.

....has been carried out on software architectures being able to grasp the inherent features of robotic systems, and in turn, to map systems designs into working implementations. A large research e ort has been devoted to hybrid architectures for autonomous mobile robots for example, ISR [1] AuRA [2] [3] RAP [4] ATLANTIS [5] Saphira [6] and G en oM [7] which have usually three layers: the bottom layer or reactive layer, the intermediate layer or task control layer and the top layer or deliberative layer. The reactive layer is the closest to the hardware, so it deals directly with ....

R. C. Arkin. Integrating Behavioral, Perceptual and World Knowledge in Reactive Navigation. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 6:105-122, 1990.

....the need to perform increasingly complex tasks, that required by real world applications. As a result, individual mobile robots have become very sophisticated. Recently, an alternative approach that uses a number of simpler robots to achieve complex tasks via co operation has been researched [1] [2][10] 17] Such an approach offers potentially significant advantages in terms of flexibility of operation, and fault tolerance due to redundancy in the number of mobile robots available [11] More specifically, RoboCup [15] and MiroSot [14] are international robot soccer games that have been ....

R.C. Arkin, Integrating behavioural, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation, Journal of Robotics and Autonomous Systems Vol. 6, 1990.

....manipulable internal representation or explicit reasoning systems [Brooks, 1991] This architecture is based on reactive agents that must respond dynamically to changes in their environment. The hybrid architecture attempts to harmonize the classical architecture with the reactive approach [Arkin, 1990] [Georgeff, Lansky and Schoppers, 1987] The present work proposes a hybrid architecture for autonomous agents in a virtual environment. However, the emphasis of this work is on the reactive side of the hybrid architecture. The authors believe that a special agent language for behavioral ....

R. C. Arkin, Integrating Behavioral, Perceptual and World Knowledge in Reactive Navigation, in P. Maes (ed.), Designing Autonomous Agents: Theory and Practice from Biology to Engineering and Back, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1990, pp. 105-122.

....actions with the environment to navigate. For example, Connell s robot, Herbert, followed a right hand rule to traverse an office environment, and found its way back by reversing the procedure [6] More sophisticated systems learn internal structures that can be played back to redo or undo paths [1]. While behavioral approaches are useful for certain tasks, their ability to localize the robot geometrically is limited, because their navigation capability is implicit in their sensor action history. Landmark methods rely on the recognition of landmarks to keep the robot localized ....

R. C. Arkin. Integrating behavioral, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 6:105--122, 1990.

....Brooks robots were usually built to perform one single task. Most architectures use dynamic arbitration schemas where the decision of which behavior to activate depends on both the current plan and the environmental contingencies; the plan is usually generated by higher level reasoning modules [88, 36, 3, 73, 41, 80]. Note that many of these architectures do not allow for the concurrent execution of behaviors, and thus do not require a subsequent step of command fusion. Both fixed and dynamic arbitration policies can be implemented using the mechanisms of fuzzy logic. The two main advantages in doing so are: ....

R. C. Arkin. Integrating behavioral, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 6:105--122, 1990.

....[5] is a priority based arbitration mechanism, where behaviors with higher priorities are allowed to suppress the output of behaviors with lower priorities. State based arbitration mechanisms include the Discrete Event Systems (DES) formalism [12] a similar method called temporal sequencing [3], and action selection based on Bayesian decision theory [13] Finally, in winner take all mechanisms action selection results from the interaction of a set of distributed behaviors that compete until one wins and takes control of the system, such as in the activation network approach [15] ....

Ronald C. Arkin. Integrating Behavioral, Perceptual and World Knowledge in Reactive Navigation. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 6:105--122, June 1990.

....is provided. 13.10 Uncertainty handling and reliability A related problem to the action selection problem is the reliability of the decisions the agent makes. Reliability in robotics has been studied along several main paths: reactivity, error recovery and uncertainty handling 5 . Reactivity [10, 5] provides immediate responses to unpredictable environmental changes through a tight coupling of perception and action. Reactive architectures have shown improved reliability when compared with classical sense plan act architectures. In error recovery techniques a set of dedicated modules monitor ....

Ronald C. Arkin. Integrating Behavioral, Perceptual and World Knowledge in Reactive Navigation. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 6:105--122, June 1990.

....The subsumption architecture[3] is a priority based arbitration mechanism, where behaviors with higher priorities are allowed to subsume the output of behaviors with lower priority. State based arbitration mechanisms include Discrete Event Systems[8] a similar method called temporal sequencing[2], and action selection based on Bayesian decision theory[9] The advantage of the DES and the temporal sequencing approaches is that they are based on the finite state machines formalism and thus system observeability and controllability can be shown for a particular implementation, however, this ....

Ronald C. Arkin. Integrating Behavioral, Perceptual and World Knowledge in Reactive Navigation. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 6:105--122, June 1990.

.... reactivity is to adopt a twolevel model: at the upper level, a planner decides a sequence of abstract goals to be achieved, based on the available knowledge; at the lower level, a complex controller achieves these goals while dealing with the environmental contingencies (e.g. McD90,Con92,Gat92,Ark90,PRK90] The controller is complex because it must be able to simultaneously satisfy strategic goals coming from the planner (e.g. going to the end of the corridor) and low level innate goals (e.g. avoiding obstacles on the way) It is the controller s job to produce physical movements ....

....represented as a potential field attracting or repelling the frog; the combination of the fields describes the movements of the frog towards the prey and away from obstacles. Further extensions of this idea to robot control were investigated by Lyons and Arbib [LA85] Overton [Ove84] and Arkin [Ark90] under the name motor schema. Arbib s motor schemas give an answer to trading off among multiple goals, by providing a modular decomposition of complex control problems. They do not, however, try to answer the second challenge above, of bridging the gap between symbolically specified goals and ....

[Article contains additional citation context not shown here]

R. C. Arkin. Integrating behavioral, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 6:105--122, 1990.

....is a priority based arbitration mechanism, where behaviors with higher priorities are allowed to subsume the output of behaviors with lower priority. State based arbitration mechanisms include the Discrete Event Systems (DES) formalism [9] a similar method called temporal sequencing described in [2], and action selection based on Bayesian decision theory [10] The advantage of the DES and the temporal sequencing approaches is that they are based on the finite state machines formalism and thus system observeability and controllability can be shown for a particular implementation, however, ....

Ronald C. Arkin. Integrating Behavioral, Perceptual and World Knowledge in Reactive Navigation. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 6:105--122, June 1990.

....fail completely. Reliability in robotics has been pursued in several main directions: reactivity, error recovery, uncertainty handling and sensor fusion integration. Reactivity provides immediate responses to unpredictable situations by a tight sensor to actuator coupling. Reactive architectures [3, 1] have displayed an improved reliability compared to classical sense plan act architectures (see e.g. 10] In error recovery techniques a set of dedicated modules monitor the task continuously and upon detection of errors (cognizant failures) an appropriate corrective action is invoked, which ....

Ronald C. Arkin. Integrating Behavioral, Perceptual and World Knowledge in Reactive Navigation. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 6:105--122, June 1990.

....actions with the environment to navigate. For example, Connell s robot, Herbert, followed a right hand rule to traverse an office environment, and found its way back by reversing the procedure [6] More sophisticated systems learn internal structures that can be played back to redo or undo paths [1]. While behavioral approaches are useful for certain tasks, their ability to localize the robot geometrically is limited, because their navigation capability is implicit in their sensor action history. Landmark methods rely on the recognition of landmarks to keep the robot localized geometrically. ....

R. C. Arkin. Integrating behavioral, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 6:105--122, 1990.

....and extend the power of robot schemas to encompass both module integration and module composition in a unified manner. 4 C. Reliability Reliability in robotics has been studied along several main paths: reactivity, error recovery and uncertainty handling 2 . Reactive behavior based systems [4], 10] provide immediate responses to unpredictable environmental changes through a tight coupling of perception and action. Reactive architectures have shown improved reliability when compared with classical sense plan act architectures. In error recovery techniques a set of dedicated modules ....

R.C. Arkin. Integrating Behavioral, Perceptual and World Knowledge in Reactive Navigation. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 6:105--122, June 1990.

....by powerful software engineering tools. 3.8 Reliability A related problem to the action selection problem is the reliability of the decisions the agent makes. Reliability in robotics has been studied along several main paths: reactivity, error recovery and uncertainty handling 4 . Reactivity [8, 6] provides immediate responses to unpredictable environmental changes through a tight coupling of perception and action. Reactive architectures have shown improved reliability when compared with classical sense plan act architectures. In error recovery techniques a set of dedicated modules monitor ....

Arkin, R. C. Integrating Behavioral, Perceptual and World Knowledge in Reactive Navigation. Robotics and Autonomous Systems 6 (June 1990), 105--122.

....operate reliably in well structured environments. However, if they are placed in environments which they are not programmed to handle, they may fail completely. Reliability in robotics has been studied along several main paths: reactivity, error recovery and uncertainty handling 1 . Reactivity [1] provides immediate responses to unpredictable environmental changes through a tight coupling of perception and action. Reactive architectures have shown improved reliability when compared with classical sense plan act architectures. In error recovery techniques a set of dedicated modules monitor ....

Ronald C. Arkin. Integrating Behavioral, Perceptual and World Knowledge in Reactive Navigation. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 6:105--122, June 1990.

....wheels, camera heads, and so on. At the highest level there are goals to achieve: getting to a destination, keeping track of location. There is a complex mapping between these two, which changes depending on the local environment. How is the mapping to be specified We have found, as have others [5, 10, 8, 2], that a layered abstraction approach makes the complexity manageable. Coherence. A mobile agent must have a conception of its environment that is appropriate for its tasks. Our experience has been that the more open ended the environment and the more complex the tasks, the more the agent will ....

....or left; then, the combined behavior prefers the side that better promotes corridor following. It is interesting to compare context dependent blending with the so called artificial potential field technique, first introduced by Khatib [13] and now extensively used in the robotic domain [15] [2]. In the potential field approach, a goal is represented by a potential measuring the desirability of each state from that goal s viewpoint. For example, the goal of avoiding obstacles is represented by a potential field having maximum value around the obstacles; and the goal of reaching a given ....

R. C. Arkin, Integrating behavioral, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation, Robotics and Autonomous Systems 6 (1990) 105--122.

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R.C. Arkin, Integrating behavioural, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation, Journal of Robotics and Autonomous Systems Vol. 6, 1990.

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R.C. Arkin, Integrating behavioural, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation, Journal of Robotics and Autonomous Systems 6, 1990.

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R. Arkin. Integrating behavioral, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation. Robotics & Autonomous Systems, 6(1,2):105--122, 1990.

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R. C. Arkin. Integrating behavioral, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 6:105--122, 1990.

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R.C. Arkin. Integrating behavioural, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation. In P. Maes, editor, Designing Autonomous Agents, pages 105--122. MIT Press, 1990.

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R.C. Arkin, Integrating behavioural, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation, Journal of Robotics and Autonomous Systems 6, 1990.

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Arkin, R. C.: 1989a, Integrating behavioral, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation, in P. Maes (ed.), Designing Autonomous Agents.

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R. C. Arkin. Integrating behavioral, perceptual and world knowledge in reactive navigation. Robotics and autonomous systems, 6:105--122, 1990.

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